STUDY CENTRE
CHAPTER 04
EVOLUTION
Evolution is the ‘history of life forms in our environment’.
Concept of evolution proposed by -Empedocles
Term, Evolution proposed by Herbert Spencer
Charles Robert Darwin - Father of evolution
Ernst Mayr - Darwin of the 20th century
Based on observations made during a sea voyage in a sail ship called H.M.S Beagle round the world,
Darwin concluded that existing living forms share similarities to varying degrees not only among them-
selves but also with life forms that existed millions of years ago.
On the basis of this Darwin defined evolution as “Descent with modification”. ie, all the present
forms of organisms are branched out from a common ancestor.
First form of life in our earth evolved in water about 4 bya/4000mya/400cya
Origin of Universe
Huge clusters of galaxies comprise the universe
Galaxies contain stars and clouds of gas and dust.
According to Big-Bang theory universe was formed about 20bya/20000mya/2000cya by a huge singu-
lar explosion occured unimaginable in physical terms. As a result universe expand and temperature
came down.
Hydrogen and Helium were the first gases formed sometime later
Gradually exploded particles (gases) condensed under their gravitation to form as present day galaxies
of universe
ORIGIN OF SOLAR SYSTEM AND EARTH
According to Nebular hypothesis proposed by Kant and Laaplace, our solar system and earth were
formed about 4.5bya/4500mya from a spinning mass of disc called “solar nebulae”.
Life appeared 500 million years after the formation of earth. ie, almost four billion years back
PRIMITIVE CONDITIONS OF EARTH
There was no atmosphere on early earth
Primitive atmosphere was a “reducing type”
It was mainly due to the absence of free oxygen
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Hydrogen was abundantly present and temperature gradually reduced.
• Gradually certain free atoms were formed, from that hydrogen was the highly reactive. It reacts with
others to form CH4, NH3 and H2O(g)
H2O(g) broke up into hydrogen and oxygen by the presence of UV-rays
Lighter H2 escaped, but oxygen coined with NH3 and CH4 to form water and CO2 and others.
CH4, NH3, CO2 and H2O(g) released from molten mass covered the surface.
Later ozone layer was formed
All these components reacts with each other by the presence of energy from lightning, thundering, UV
-rays, X-rays volcanic eruptions etc to form simple organic substances like aminoacids, fattyacids,
sugars, pigments, N2 bases etc.
As the atmosphere is cooled, then water fell as rain to fill all the depressions and form oceans.
Within the ocean water all these simple organic compounds reacts with each other to form first form of
life [RNA, Proteins, etc].
THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF LIFE (Conventional religious literature)
1) Theory of Special creation - By Hebrew and Father Suarez. According to this,life forms are
created by supernatural power. This theory has 3 connotations. They are;
i) All living organisms that we see today were created as such
ii) Diversity was always the same since creation and will be the same in future also.
iii) At the time of creation earth was about 4000 years old.
2) Theory of spontaneous generation - [Abiogenesis]
By Aristotle, Plato, Van Helmont etc.
¨ Life originated from non - living things such as decaying and rotting matter like straw, mud, dew
etc by spontaneously.
¨ Louis Pasteur disproved this through Swan Necked Flask experiment.
3) Theory of Biogenesis : By Louis Pasteur
¨ life forms are evolved from pre existing living things.
¨ However it does not explains the origin of first form of life.
4) Theory of Panspermia (Arrhenius) / Cosmozoic origin (Richter).
It states units of life called spores were transferred to different planets including earth. Most of
the Greek thinkers accepted this idea and Astronomers believed this idea still this time also.
5) Theory of chemical evolution - [Chemogenesis] / Biochemical origin / Protobiogenesis.
By A.I Oparin from Russia and J. B. S Haldane from England . [“ Origin of life”] Oparin
¨ First form of life evolved in water from pre-existing non-living organic molecules by series of chemi-
cal reactions takes place in air and H2O. ie; formation of diverse organic molecules from inorganic
constituents.
It explained through chemical evolution and biological evolution
Chemical evolution - Chemogenesis
Biochemical Origin / Oparin - Haldane Theory
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The first cellular form of life did not possibly originate till about 2000mya.
This version of biogenesis ie; the first form of life arose slowly through evolutionary forces from non-
living molecules accepted by majority.
EXPERIMENTAL PROOF OF CHEMICAL EVOLUTION
¨ Simulation / Millers experiment by Stanley Miller with the support of Harold .C. Urey in 1953.
¨ Recreated all the primitive conditions of earth in laboratory with the help of Spark Discharge
Apparatus.
In 1953 Stanley Miller experimentally proved chemical evolution through a simulation experiment.
Miller recreated all the primitive conditions of earth in a laboratory with the help of Spark Discharge
apparatus. He created electric discharge in a closed flask containing CH4, H2, NH3 ( 2 : 1 : 2) and H2O
(g) at 8000C temperature. [Spark chamber]. With the help of electrode wires created energy in spark
chamber and promoted chemical reaction. After this, formed components are collected through a
condenser. Finally he observed the formation of Aminoacids.
In similar experiments others observed the formation of sugars, nitrogen bases, pigments and fats.
Analysis of meteorite content also provide a support to chemical evolution. With this limited evidence
chemical evolution is more or less accepted.
EVIDENCES OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION:
The process of cumulative change in living population and in the descent population of organisms is
called organic evolution. But it can be studied only through certain evidences.
According to this Charles Darwin concluded that, existing living forms share similarities to varying
degrees not among themselves along with the existed group of animals millions of years ago. It
indicates their close relationship (CR) and common ancestry (CA).
A) PALAENTOLOGICAL EVIDENCES : -
¨ It is based on the comparative study of fossils
¨ Fossils are the petrified dead remains of the body or body parts of ancient organisms preserved in
sedimentary rocks, volcanic ash, amber of plants, icebergs etc.
¨ Determination of the age of fossils - “Dating of fossils”.
¨ “Radioactive carbon dating” is the widely accepted method.
In this age of fossil determined by calculating decomposition time of radioactive isotope C14 present
in the fossil / surrounding medium.
Most of the fossils are formed in oceans.
¨ Rocks form sediments and a cross section of earth’s crust indicates the arrangement of
sediments one over the other during the long history of earth. Different aged rock sediments
contain fossils of different life forms who probably died during the formation of particular sediment.
¨ A study of fossils in the different layers in sedimentary rocks indicates that evolution starting from
more simple level to highly complex level and the geological period in which they existed.
¨ ie, from the origin of earth it passed through many age periods with different organisms. The origin,
dominance and extinction of organisms are takes place at different time periods. From that some are
restricted to a particular time period only. The study showed that life forms varied over time.
¨ Based on this palaeontologists proposed
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“ Geological history of earth closely correlated with the biological history of earth.”
¨ However, ancestors of present day organisms were present at different periods in the history of
earth.
¨ Fossils are Written Documents and Direct evidences of Evolution.
¨ Based on the comparative study and dating of fossils palaeontologists prepared a tabulated form
at which the origin, dominance and extinction of organisms from the origin of earth to this time.
¨ It is called “Geological Time Scale”.
¨ In this time durations are classified into many Eras, Periods and Epochs.
GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE
¨ About 2000 mya the first cellular forms of life appeared on earth.
¨ By the time 500mya, invertebrates were formed and active.
¨ About 350 mya fish with stout and strong fins (coelacanth / lobe fin fishes) could move on land and
evolved into Amphibians.
¨ However, these were ancestors of modern day frogs and salamanders.
¨ A coelacanth fish named Latimeria caught in South Africa in 1938.
¨ Sea weeds and few plants existed probably around 320 mya
¨ At the end of Carboniferous period ie 300 mya giant ferns present but they all fell to form coal
deposits slowly.
¨ About 200 mya (Triassic period) some land reptiles went back into water and evolved as fish like
reptiles (Ichthyosaurs).
¨ Major types of Dinosaurs lived during jurassic period were;
Brachiosaurus Herbivorous with elongated neck and tail
Stegosaurus Herbivorous with Horny plates on body and horned tail.
Triceratops Herbivorous with 3 - horned head.
Tyrannosaurus rex : Giant carnivorous Dinosaur with 20 feet in height and had huge fear [Link]
like teeth.
¨ Pteranodon - Flying reptile.
¨ At the end of cretaceous period ie 65 mya. dinosaurs extinct due to - Climatic changes, and some
of them are evolved into birds.
¨ Small sized reptiles of that era still exist today.
¨ Crocodiles and birds are the modern day counter part organisms of dinosaurs.
B) BIOCHEMICAL EVIDENCES:
It is based on the comparative study of biological substances and biochemical reactions in the body of
different vertebrates.
¨ Different vertebrates having similar type of proteins, Hormones, Enzymes, genes etc. and they
perform similar functions. It indicates their CR and CA.
C) MORPHOLOGICAL AND ANATOMICAL EVIDENCES
It based on the comparative study of external and internal characteristics of organisms.
1) HOMOLOGOUS ORGANS :
Organs which have similar structure and origin but different in appearance and function ie, the same
structure developed along different directions due to adaptations to different needs.
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Similarity indicates CR and CA but differences occurs due to Divergent evolution. Homology is
based on divergent evolution.
Eg: 1) Comparative anatomy of Heart and Brain of different Vertebrates
2) Thorn of Bougainvillea and Tendril of Cucurbita
3) Forelimb bones of Man, Bat, Whale and Cheetah
ADAPTIVE RADIATION [Divergent evolution]
Here evolution starting from a point and literally radiated to other areas of geography based on the new
habitat organisms are adapted and evolved into new species.
¨ Divergent evolution leads to the origin of Homologous organs.
Eg : 1) Marsupial mammals in Australia
2) Placental mammals in Australia
3) Darwin’s finches in Galapagos islands.
2) ANALOGOUS ORGANS:
Organs which have similar function but different in structure and origin
¨ Functional similarity occurs due to similar habitat or convergent evolution ie; different structures
evolving for the same function and hence having similarity.
¨ Differences indicates different ancestry not common ancestry
¨ Analogous organs and convergent evolution are least useful to determine CR and CA
¨ Analogous organs are a result of convergent evolution.
Eg: 1) Wings of Bird and Butterfly
2) Eye of Octopus and Mammal (whale)
3) Flipper of Penguin and Dolphins
4) Tuber of potato and sweet potato
CONVERGENT EVOLUTION :
When more than one adaptive radiation appeared to have occurred in an isolated geographical area
with different habitats is called convergent evolution.
Eg : 1) Placental and marsupial mammals in Australia
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PLACENTAL MARSUPIAL
MAMMALS MAMMALS
MOLE MARSUPIAL MOLE
NUMBAT (Banded
ANTEATER (Pangolin)
ant eater)
MARSUPIAL MOUSE
MOUSE
(Bandicoot)
LEMUR SPOTTED CUSCUS
FLYING PHALANGER
FLYING SQUIRREL
(Sugar glider)
BOBCAT TASMANIAN TIGERCAT
WOLF TASMANIAN WOLF
¨ Convergent evolution leads to the origin of analogous organs.
D) EMBRYOLOGICAL EVIDENCES :
It is based on the comparative study of embryos and embryological stages in different vertebrates.
RECAPITULATION THEORY [BIOGENETIC LAW]
Proposed by Earnst Heckel (1868) and it defined as;
“Ontogeny Recapitulates phylogeny”
¨ Ontogeny is the developmental history of an organism.
¨ Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of an organism.
“It means all organisms repeating their ancestral characteristics during early stages.”
¨ Heckel proposed every descendant embryos repeat their ancestral adult characteristics (fishes)
during early stages. So ancestral adult and descendant embryo are exactly similar.
¨ Based upon the observation, Heckel proposed, certain features during embryonic stage common
to all vertebrates that are absent in adult.
eg : Presence of row of vestigeal gill slits in all vertebrate embryo, but it is functional only in adult
fish.
¨ Karl Earnst Von Baer (1828) proposed every descendant embryo repeating their ancestral
embryonic character during early stages, not adult characters. So all vertebrate. embryos are similar
during early stages. Generalised features like brain, spinal cord, axial skeleton, aortic arches are
earlier developed than external species characteristics. So we cannot distinguish them during early
stages. This also proves CR and CA.
Eg. Presence of gill slits in all vertebrate embryos
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E) BIOGEOGRAPHICAL EVIDENCES :
It based on the comparative study of organisms distributed to different parts of the world.
This geographical distribution is occured due to CONTINENTAL DRIFT.
It leads to :
1) Extinction of animals : eg. Mammals resembling Horse, Hippopotamus, Bear and Rabbit in South
America extinct due to competition with North American fauna.
2) Restricted Distribution : Some organisms are restricted to a particular land area only. In
other areas they are completely wiped out. [Link] of marsupials and prototherians in Australia
due to lack of competition
3) Through Geographical distribution organisms are separated to different places and evolved into new
species.
Eg. Darwin’s finches in Galapagos islands [Adaptive radiation]
It indicates that through continental drift organisms are distributed to different parts of world and evolved
into new species. But at the same time they are sharing some similarities. It indicates their CR and
CA.
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION :
1) LAMARCKISM [Theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics] / “USE & DISUSE THEORY”
¨ First theory about origin of species proposed by Jean Baptiste de Lamarck through a book named
“Philosophic zoologique” (1809).
¨ Based on the changed environmental conditions and internal vital forces, organisms acquiring new
features by the overuse or disuse of organs and it inherited to the next generations through
‘Somatic cells’.
¨ Due to the overuse, such organs became more extended or elongated and the disuse of organs
they became reduced or disappears. It leads to speciation after a number of generations.
Examples :
1) Elongated neck and forelimb in Giraffe
2) Origin of snakes
Later it was disproved by August Weismann through a Tail cutting / Mutilation expt. in mice and he
proposed “Theory of continuity of Germ plasm”.
2) DARWINISM - Theory of Natural selection / Darwin - Wallace theory :
¨ Charles Darwin proposed it along with the support of Alfred Russel Wallace.
[conducted Expts in Malay Archepelago].
¨ Darwin’s Book - “ On the basis of origin of species by means of Natural selection” published
in 1859 Nov. 24th.
¨ “Branching descent and Natural selection” are the two key concepts of Darwinian theory
¨ It means all the present forms of organisms are branched out from a common ancestor through
Natural selection.
¨ N.S is the major reason for evolution.
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¨ Natural selection : It is the process by which the selection of more fitted individuals from a mixed
population by changing environmental conditions.
¨ Fitness is the major criteria for this selection, it is the end result of the ability of an organism to
adapt and get selected by nature. Or the ability of an organism to adapt on the changed conditions.
¨ Darwin considered it as “ Reproductive fitness”. It is the ability of an organism to adapt on the
changed conditions and produce more number of offsprings or ability of an organism to contribute
their gene pool. These, therefore, will survive more and hence are selected by nature.
¨ This would continue for a long time and results the origin of new species after a number of
generations.
¨ Darwin called it natural selection and implied it as a mechanism of evolution.
Salient features of Darwinism :
1) Over production
2) Limited food and space
3) Competition ( Struggle for existence)
4) Variations (useful)
5) Survival of the fittest - [Herbert Spencer] or Natural selection - [Darwin]
6) Inheritance of useful variations
7) Speciation
¨ Darwin explained over production mainly under the influence of a book named “ Essay on prin-
ciples of population” written by Thomas Malthus.
¨ Malthus proposed “ population size increased in a geometric ratio while food supply increases in
an arithmetic ratio”.
¨ It leads to an imbalance between nature and population, and competition between organisms.
¨ Darwin considered these competition as; Intraspecific, Interspecific and Extra specific
¨ In that competition some are attaining useful variations and survived but others are eliminated.
¨ Variations are the chief cause of evolution
¨ Such variations are ; small, slow, gradual or continuous and directional (pre - determined)
¨ These variations are inherited to next generations and results the origin of species after a number
of generations.
¨ So, “ Evolution is a small, slow, continuous and directed / predetermined process”.
Supplementary theory of Natural selection
¨ Artificial selection programmes performed by man is a supplementary idea of N.S
¨ Man selected organisms having desirable qualities within a short time of period through artificial
breeding programmes. Similar thing performed by nature through millions of years.
Criticism of Darwinism :
Darwin failed to explain,
1) Cause and inheritance of variations
2) Cause of discontinuous variations
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3) Presence of vestigeal organs in descendants
4) Arrival of the fittest
¨ Darwin explained only Survival of the fittest.
Examples of Natural selection:
1) Industrial melanism in Biston betularia
2) DDT - Resistance mosquitoes
3) Antibiotic resistant bacteria
¨ These are example of N.S by anthropogenic actions
¨ Here new resistant varieties evolved within a much lesser time scale not after a number of
generations.
¨ This shows that “ Evolution is not a directed process” but it is a stochastic ( no predetermination)
process.
¨ It occurs due to ;
1) chance events in nature
2) chance fertilization
¨ Mutations are pre adaptive but it is effective only by means of N.S.
Types of Natural selection
It is of 3 types;
1) Balancing / Stabilising Natural selection
More individuals acquire mean character value
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2) Directional (Progressive Natural Selection)
More individuals acquire value other than mean character value
eg : 1) Industrial melanism
2) DDT - Resistant mosquitoes
3) Disruptive Natural selection
More individuals acquire peripheral character value at both ends of the distribution curve.
3) MUTATION THEORY
¨ It is proposed by Hugo de Vries (1901) after conducted experiments in “Oenothera lamarckiana”
( Evening primrose).
¨ Mutations are the chief cause of variations .
¨ Such mutable variations are ;
“ Sudden, large, Heritable, Random, Discontinuous and Directionless”.
¨ Through these, new species evolved suddenly ie; on the very first next generation not after millions
of years.
¨ Based on this De Vries proposed;
“ Evolution is a sudden, large single step / Saltatory, Discontinuous and Directionless
process” or It is a Jerky process.
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4) MODERN SYNTHETIC THEORY ( NEO - DARWINISM)
¨ It is the Reconciliation of Darwin’s N.S and mutation theory of de Vries.
¨ According to it only genetic variations (mutations) are inherited but it takes place through N.S
¨ Population play an important role in evolution
¨ Every population has built with genetic constancy over a number of generations. If any change in
this constancy results evolution.
HARDY - WEINBERG PRINCIPLE :
¨ It is used as a tool by the population geneticists to identify evolution in a population.
¨ According to this total number of genes and their alleles (gene pool) in a population remains con
stant over a number of generations. It is called Genetic stability / Genetic equilibrium / Hardy -
Weinberg equilibrium.
¨ The sum total of allelic frequency in a population is taken as ‘1’
¨ Individuals frequency in represented as ‘p’ and ‘q’
¨ ‘p’ represent dominant allele ‘A’ while individual ‘q’ represent recessive allele -‘a’.
¨ The sum total of alleles ‘AA’ , Aa and ‘aa’ of individuals are p 2 2pq q 2 1 or
(p q)2 1 or (p q) 1
¨ Factors affecting Hardy - Weinberg equilibrium and cause evolution are;
1) Mutation
2) Natural selection
3) Recombination of Genes
4) Gene migration - through migration and immigration between 2 different population
Gene flow - Continuous gene migration between 2 different population
5) Lack of Random mating
6) Genetic Drift (Sewall Wright effect)
¨ It is the drastic change in the allelic frequency of a population by chance alone.
¨ It is effective only in small isolated population
¨ It eliminate certain genes from the mother population and it is opposite to N.S.
eg: 1) Founder effect
Founder Effect
¨ A new group of colonisers evolved from a mother population through genetic drift into a new habitat
with changed characteristics are called Founders.
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¨ These founders do not have all the alleles in their mother population. They are different from mother
population.
¨ Founders can repeatedly multiply to produce offsprings with all the features of founders.
¨ If founders have any genetic disorder that is also inherited to their offsprings.
¨ Finally formed offsprings are different from mother population. It is called Founder effect.
Eg: Darwin’s Finches in Galapagos islands
HUMAN EVOLUTION:
Human evolution begins at the Oligocene epoch of tertiary period.
Most fossils of human ancestors were collected from Tertiary rocks of Aftrica. So Africa is the cradle
of Human evolution.
Homosapiens arose in Africa and moved across continents and developed into different races.
Major ancestral forms of humans are;
Dryopithecus [Proconsuls], common ancestor of apes and man
More Ape like ancestor
Apes
10 - 15 mya [15 - 25 mya] Miocene epexch
Walked lime chimpanzee and Gorilla. They have hairy body
Ramapithecus / Sivapithecus
10 - 15 mya [3-15 mya] during the Miocono and Piliocono apoch
More man like ancestor
First direct ancestor towards man, they have hairy body and walked in a semierect posture.
Fossils discovered from Sivalik hills of Eastern Himalaya
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Homo erectus 1.5 mya (Pleistocene epoch)
First man ate meat and to make use of fine for hunting, defence, cooking etc.
Brain capacity 900cc
Fossils collected from Java of Indonesia in 1891 Java ape man (pithecanthropus croctus)
Peiking of China Peking man [Sinanthropus pekinensis]
Germany Heidelbergman
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Pre historic cave arts developed 18000 yrs ago
Some prehistoric cave paintings discovered from
Bhimbetka rock shelter of Raisen district in
Madhya pradesh
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