SYNTHESIS OF NEW CROPS

Introduction

Not all plant species are diploids. In fact, 75% of all angiosperms are polyploids, which are
characterized by having more than two sets of chromosomes in their somatic cells. Major crops,
such as wheat, alfalfa, potato, cotton, and sugarcane, are polyploids. There are also plants that do
not possess complete sets of chromosomes. Aneuploids have abnormal numbers of chromosomes
and vary by the addition or deletion of specific individual chromosomes that otherwise would be
present in the normal crop genome. Ploidy reduction produces haploids, which have only a single
set of homologous chromosomes instead of the pair found in their diploid counterparts. Haploid
plants are very valuable in certain breeding applications. Plant breeders can alter chromosome
numbers to modify and exploit genetic variability.

Ploidy

Ploidy refers to the number of chromosome sets in a cell. The symbol x is used to indicate the
number of chromosomes in a set.

Polyploid

Polyploid is a general term indicating multiple (more than two) sets of chromosomes.
Genome is a set of chromosomes that is inherited together, assuming normal meiosis and mitosis.
Each genome is composed of the basic chromosome number, x, and each kind of chromosome is
represented only once in each set.

n — indicates the haploid or gametic chromosome number of the species. (Note: n does
not tell anything about the number of chromosome sets).

2n — denotes the diploid or somatic number of the species.

x — indicates the basic number of chromosomes in each set or genome.

Types of ploidy

There are two general types of ploidy, which include plants that have either one or more
complete sets of chromosomes present in their genome (euploids) or those that have partial sets
due to the absence of at least one of their individual chromosomes or presence of at least one
extra one (aneuploids).

Haploidy—individual with half (n=x) of the somatic cell chromosome number.

Diploidy—individual with two sets of the basic, complete genome (2n=2x).

Polyploidy—individual with more than two basic, complete sets of chromosomes in its somatic
cells. Among polyploids, there are two main types:

Autoploidy—individual has more than two complete chromosome sets from a single
genome. Also known as autopolyploidy.

Alloploidy—individual has two or more genomes contributed from different parental

species in their ancestral lineage. Also known as allopolyploidy. Most naturally occurring
polyploids are alloploids.

Amphidiploids (also called amphiploids) are allotetraploids that contain two sets of
genomes from each of two different parents. Amphidiploids are so-called because they behave
like diploids during meiosis.

Polyploid

Based on Origin Based on Genome

Natural Artificial Autopolyploids Allopolyploids

Segmental
allopolyploids
Autoploidy

Autoploids commonly occur as a result of duplication of the genome(s) of a single species, thus,
the genomes possessed by an autoploid are identical. An autotetraploid (4x) has four sets of the
same genome, e.g., four sets of the A genome (AAAA). The following are characteristics
associated with autoploids:

 Greater ability to colonize new habitats than diploid ancestors—Due to gene buffering,
autoploids often show a slower response to selection, but more adaptive potential.
 Dosage effect of gene expression—Additive effect of the alleles increases the number of
phenotypes. There is a linear relationship between gene expression and number of gene
copies.
 Larger cells and nuclei compared to their respective diploid counterparts— Because of
the greater cell size, autoploids tend to have greater vegetative growth and produce larger
structures. This feature has been utilized by breeders to increase yield of crops harvested
for their vegetative structures.
 Reduced fertility—Abnormalities in meiosis may interfere with chromosome pairing,
resulting in unbalanced chromosomal distribution between daughter cells, and thus,
nonviable gametes. Gametes possessing an extra chromosome or missing a chromosome
(i.e., aneuploids) are usually nonviable. This feature is utilized by breeders to develop
seedless crops such as seedless watermelon.

Alloploidy

Alloploidy Alloploids arise when the genomes of two or more unrelated species are combined in
a single individual. Several characteristics are associated with alloploidy:

 Broadened genetic base. Alloploids (also known as amphiploids) behave like diploids
and result in new species.
 Increased allele diversity and heterozygosity—Increase in possible allele combinations
can provide expanded opportunities for breeding.
 Novel phenotypic variation—Genome interactions and changes in gene expression can
occur in newly synthesized alloploids. Such gene changes can include transfer of
sequences between genomes and gene conversion, loss, or silencing.
  Sterile unless genomes are doubled and chromosomes pair correctly. Chromosome
doubling also occurs spontaneously in nature, mainly through the fusion of unreduced
gametes.

Alloploidy has impacted the evolution of some major crops, such as wheat, cotton, tobacco, and
various Brassicas (mustards). Information about the ploidy relationships between certain species
has improved our understanding of the genetic origin of polyploid crops and facilitated their
improvement. In addition to identifying the genetic origin of a crop, genes, as well as whole
genomes, can be transferred among related species to obtain novel genotypes and to combine the
favorable qualities of different species as is demonstrated in the creation of Triticale.

How alloploidy developed?

Colchicine is a chemical that is commonly used to artificially double chromosomes. Colchicine

is a toxic natural product that is found in the bulbs of autumn crocus (Colchicum autumnale). It
is used as a medicine to treat the human disease gout, but it is also used to induce polyploidy in
plants. Originally it was extracted from crocus bulbs, but is now also manufactured synthetically.
When plant seeds or meristem tissues (apical tip, shoots, or suckers) are soaked in colchicine, it
makes the cell walls permeable and prevents normal chromosome division.

Colchicine functions as a disruptor of mitosis by inhibiting microtubule formation, thus

preventing normal chromosome segregation to occur. After seed treatment with the chemical,
half the gametes resulting from meiosis contain no chromosomes, while the other half contains
diploid instead of the normal haploid number. This disruption leads to embryos with double the
usual number of chromosomes. Colchicine is used to make infertile hybrids or haploid
plants fertile by restoring doubled chromosomes. The latter plants are known as doubled
haploids. An example of the former is development of hexaploid and octaploid triticale.

Colchicine is also used in the study of karyotypes, which refer to the chromosome constitution of
the cell (specifically, the number and morphological appearance of chromosomes in the nucleus).
In order to observe chromosomes under a light microscope, cells are treated with the chemical
near the middle of mitosis during metaphase—a point in the cell cycle when chromosomes are
most dense and therefore most visible. Colchicine treatment arrests these chromosomes by
preventing the formation of the spindle microtubules.
Synthesis of new crops:

1. Wheat
Wheat is an example of a crop whose origin has been extensively studied and is a classic
example of a polyploid crop that evolved through the combination of genomes from
related species. Wheat has three sets of chromosomes, designated as A, B, and D. Each of
these sets contributes 7 chromosomes

Past evidence
2n=2x= 14 2n=2x= 14 suggest that, A.
n= 7 speltoides may not
n=7
be the donor for B
2n=2x = 14 genome
I polyploidization (meiotic error)
Triticum turgidum Triticum taushii
2n=2x= 14
2n=4x = 28
n=7
n=2x = 14
2n=3x = 21
II
polyploidization (meiotic error)
2n=6x = 42