Article

Implementation of Driving Cycles Based on Driving Style

Characteristics of Autonomous Vehicles
Xucheng Duan *, Ferdinand Schockenhoff and Alexander Koch

Institute of Automotive Technology, TUM School of Engineering and Design, Technical University of Munich,
Boltzmannstraße 15, 85748 Garching, Germany; [Link]@[Link] (F.S.);
[Link]@[Link] (A.K.)
* Correspondence: [Link]@[Link]

Abstract: The standardized driving cycles, which are used around the globe for the development
and homologation of automobiles, consist of a series of speed points versus time, to represent
typical driving conditions and to exclude the influence of a human driver. However, with respect
to autonomous vehicles (AVs), the driving style is defined in driving algorithms as a characteristic
of the vehicle. Therefore, driving style should be considered in driving cycles. In this research,
using MATLAB/Simulink® we developed the AVDC (Autonomous Vehicle Driving Cycle) Tool,
which is capable of generating driving cycles based on driving style characteristics. The autonomous
vehicles being investigated drive in a simulated environment along a straight road amongst other
traffic vehicles, applying standard cycles to ensure the representativeness of generated autonomous
cycles. The autonomous vehicle is piloted by adaptive cruise control (ACC) for car-following and
free driving. Overtake logic decides whether passing will be attempted. Driving style is defined by
four aspects—comfort, safety, swiftness, and economy—and determines the control parameters in
the driving algorithm. The driving cycles generated by the AVDC Tool for a variety of driving styles
show diverse characteristics, thus indicating the effective representation of various driving styles.

Citation: Duan, X.; Schockenhoff, F.; Keywords: driving cycle; driving style; autonomous vehicle
Koch, A. Implementation of Driving
Cycles Based on Driving Style
Characteristics of Autonomous
Vehicles. World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 1. Introduction
108. [Link]
Nowadays, autonomous driving is a significant trend in the automotive industry [1–3].
wevj13060108
Numerous automotive manufacturers, suppliers, start-ups, and research institutes are
Academic Editor: Joeri Van Mierlo conducting research and development on relevant technologies including algorithms.
Received: 24 May 2022
Autonomous vehicles change the relationship between human and vehicle as the driver
Accepted: 15 June 2022
is no longer required, and every person inside the vehicle is a passenger. As a result,
Published: 20 June 2022
the design concept for vehicles should be adapted to improve user experience during
autonomous driving situations [4]. Automotive manufacturers should develop AVs in such
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
a way that users can comfortably perform numerous activities during the trip, such as
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
reading, watching videos, playing, and working.
published maps and institutional affil-
In the current development of vehicles, driving cycles are commonly used to evaluate
iations.
the consumption and emissions of traditional vehicles [5], or the range of electric vehicles,
as well as to iteratively optimize technical design [6,7]. The current driving cycles all have
fixed speed profiles in order to eliminate driver influence [8]. However, in AVs the driving
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
style is a feature of the vehicle itself. Therefore, it should be considered in the driving cycles.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. In this context, we focus on designing driving cycles for AVs that depend on the driving
This article is an open access article style.
distributed under the terms and With this aim, the AVDC (Autonomous Vehicle Driving Cycle) Tool [9] was developed
conditions of the Creative Commons using MATLAB/Simulink® [10], which utilizes a specific driving style as an input when
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// generating a cycle. Therefore, a driving cycle can be constructed for a certain driving style.
[Link]/licenses/by/ The driving style is divided into four aspects within the tool: comfort, safety, swiftness, and
4.0/). economy. In the simulation, the AV being investigated followed a configurable scenario

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108. [Link] [Link]

 World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 27

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108 2 of 26

swiftness, and economy. In the simulation, the AV being investigated followed a config-
urable scenario in which it drove among traffic vehicles on a straight road. The chosen
in which it drove among traffic vehicles on a straight road. The chosen driving style
driving style determined the control parameters of the driving algorithm. The simulated
determined the control parameters of the driving algorithm. The simulated speed profile
speed profile of the AV was recorded as the output cycle.
of the AV was recorded as the output cycle.

[Link]
Stateof
ofthe
theArt
Art
Theobjective
The objectiveofofthis
this research—driving
research—driving cycles
cycles for for AVs—is
AVs—is a newa new
topictopic addressed
addressed in few in
few publications, although partially automated (SAE Level 2 [11]) vehicles
publications, although partially automated (SAE Level 2 [11]) vehicles are already running are already
running
on on public
public roads. roads. papers
Therefore, Therefore,
frompapers from the
the relevant relevant
research research
fields will be fields willinbethis
reviewed re-
viewed in this section, namely driving cycle, driving style,
section, namely driving cycle, driving style, and AV assessment. and AV assessment.

2.1.
[Link]
DevelopmentofofDriving
DrivingCycles
Cycles
Extensive
Extensivestudies
studiesare arebeing
being conducted
conducted ononthethedevelopment
development of driving cycles,
of driving based
cycles, on
based
which numerous
on which numerous cycles havehave
cycles beenbeencreated in various
created countries
in various and and
countries regions [12].[12].
regions Examples
Exam-
ofples
existing drivingdriving
of existing cycles used
cyclesinused
legislative regulations
in legislative for passenger
regulations cars include
for passenger carsthe New
include
European Driving Cycle
the New European (NEDC)
Driving Cycle [5], the Worldwide
(NEDC) harmonizedharmonized
[5], the Worldwide Light vehicles Testvehicles
Light Cycle
(WLTC) [13],(WLTC)
Test Cycle FTP 75 (Federal
[13], FTPTest Procedure)
75 (Federal Test[12] in the USA,
Procedure) [12]the
in China
the USA, Automotive
the ChinaTest
Au-
Cycle (CATC) [14], and JC08 (Japan Cycle) [15] in Japan. A comprehensive
tomotive Test Cycle (CATC) [14], and JC08 (Japan Cycle) [15] in Japan. A comprehensive collection of
existing driving cycles can be found in [8,16].
collection of existing driving cycles can be found in [8,16].
Galgamuwa
Galgamuwa et al. [17]
et al. [17]summarized
summarizedthe the methods
methods usedused in the
in the literature
literature regarding
regarding driv-
driving
ing cycle development and divided the procedure into four steps: route selection,data
cycle development and divided the procedure into four steps: route selection, data
collection,
collection,cycle
cycledesign,
design,and andcycle
cycleevaluation.
evaluation. Real-world
Real-world driving
driving datadataononthe
theselected
selected
routes
routesare
arefirst
firstcollected
collectedand andprocessed.
[Link], Then,aadriving
drivingcycle
cycleisisgenerated
generatedand andevaluated
evaluated
based
based on the data, in order to statistically represent real driving conditions. Figure11shows
on the data, in order to statistically represent real driving conditions. Figure shows
the
thegeneral
generalprocedure
procedurefor fordriving
drivingcyclecycledevelopment
developmentusing usingdriving
drivingdata.
data.
Acquisition of

Route Selection
driving data

Route

Data Collection

Driving Data

Segmentation of Driving Data

Generation of the

Segments
driving cycle

Construction of a Driving
Cycle Candidate
Cycle declined

Candidate Evaluation

accepted

Final Version of the Driving

Cycle

[Link]
Figure Generalprocedure
procedurefor
fordriving
drivingcycle
cycledevelopment
development using
using real
real driving
driving data,
data, based
based onon
[16,18].
[16,18].
The existing approaches were designed for vehicles driven by humans, since cycle
The existing
construction approachesdriving
using real-world were designed for avehicles
data ensures driven by humans,
good representability sinceusage.
of vehicle cycle
construction
For using
AVs, a similar real-world
approach can bedriving
adapteddata ensures
using a good
AV driving representability
data. of vehicle
Nevertheless, individual
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108 3 of 26

driving style is not considered in this method, which fails to meet the objective of this
research. Our new method will be explained in Section 3.

2.2. Evaluation of Driving Style

As a subjective and empirical concept, driving style has no standard definition and
is described variously in the literature. Elander et al. [19] offered the following definition:
Driving style refers to “the way individuals choose to drive, or driving habits that have
been established over a period of years”. Sagberg et al. [20] reviewed definitions within
articles and found three common points: First, driving styles differ from person to person
or between groups of people. Second, a driving style is a habitual manner of driving that
represents a relatively stable aspect of driving behavior. Third, in most definitions, driving
styles reflect conscious decisions by the driver. Several factors could influence the driving
style of a driver—including personality, driving experience, driving knowledge, driving
environment, social culture, and technical aspects [20,21].
The influence of driving style exists on a variety of levels. In terms of traffic en-
gineering, the driving style of vehicles influences traffic flow density [22,23] and road
safety [20]. At the vehicle level, energy consumption and emissions are influenced by
driving style [24–26]. For passengers, driving style affects travel comfort and safety [27–29].
The research on driving style can be divided into two categories—classification and
valuation. In the former category, driving styles have been classified in several types.
A typical classification is based on whether the driver drives fast, which then leads to
two or three classes: A driver with a fast driving style, also referred as aggressive [30,31],
sporty [32], or assertive [33], prefers high speed, high acceleration, and a short distance
from the vehicle ahead. A driver with a slow driving style, also called cautious [30],
comfortable [32,34], calm [31], or defensive [33], prefers the opposite. The third class refers
to the style in between, i.e., normal.
In the valuation category, the examined driving styles are assessed with a numeric
score. Therefore, the driving style can be evaluated for various aspects. Jachimczyk
et al. [35] chose eight indicators for the rating of three driving style aspects—comfort,
safety, and economy. Each indicator (based on the examined driver) is first scaled with an
expert value into a rating from 0 to 1. The ratings for the same aspect are combined into an
overall aspect rating using the area enclosed by all relevant ratings. Numerous research
projects focus on a specific aspect rather than overall driving style. Schockenhoff et al. [34]
studied ride comfort during two driving maneuvers—double 90◦ turn and slalom. The
test subjects sat in the test car while the maneuvers were being performed with specific
driving styles. The relationships between the subjects’ ratings of discomfort and the data
for measured indicators were evaluated using regression analysis. Regarding subjective
feeling of safety, Kondoh et al. [36] studied driver risk perception during car-following
on a driving simulator. Two indicators were selected: time-to-collision (TTC) and time-
headway (THW). The overall risk perception (RP) was defined as the weighted sum of
their reciprocals. Lu et al. [37,38] pointed out the limitations of RP and proposed another
valuation for safety—the safety margin (SM) value, which considers reaction time and
maximum deceleration during braking. The SM corresponds to subjective safety better
than RP in wider speed ranges.
The main issue for driving style evaluation is that of choosing appropriate criteria and
indicators. Several researchers have investigated driving style during certain maneuvers,
including car-following on a motorway [23,30], overtaking on a motorway [39], braking to
a full stop [40], lane changing [34], and slalom [34]. During the maneuvers, related physical
values were measured and used directly or indirectly as indicators of driving style. Another
option is that of evaluating the driving style for a whole trip. In this case, average and
root mean square (RMS) values have been used for indicators. Typically measured values
include velocity, acceleration, distance, and time-headway to the front vehicle [31,35,41].
These values are feasible and could indicate several aspects of driving style.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108 4 of 26

2.3. Assessment Methods for Autonomous Vehicles

With conventional vehicles, driving cycles are used to benchmark energy consumption
and emissions. In the evaluation of electrical vehicles, driving cycles are also important
for range determination. Although autonomous driving has been researched in numerous
studies, there exist few publications about the assessment methods.
Mersky and Samaras [42] developed a test procedure for AV consumption. In the
simulation, the tested AV follows a vehicle applying the American legislative driving cycle
(FTP or HWFET). Initially, the test vehicle is positioned 5 m behind the front vehicle before
the latter starts moving. The AV follows using an ACC (Adaptive Cruise Control) system.
The test ends when the front vehicle completes its driving cycle. The speed profile of the
AV is recorded as the cycle, based upon which the consumption during the process is
calculated by means of a consumption model. Depending on various parameters in the
ACC strategy, the fuel efficiency of the AV cycle can vary from 3% worse to 10% better than
the original cycle.
Roshdi, et al. [43] proposed an evaluation framework for AVs that converts data from
test drives or simulations into standardized test data. The series of built-in criteria, as well
as user-defined criteria, can be used for the evaluation. Since this study focuses on the
framework, the exact equations for calculating the criteria have been omitted.

2.4. Research Gap

As mentioned in Section 2.1, the conventional methods for driving cycle development
are not suitable for AVs. Mersky and Samaras [42] proposed a method in which the AV
follows a vehicle running with standard cycles, but driving style is not investigated in this
method.
For AVs, the driving style is an important characteristic for customers and has yet to
be thoroughly investigated (Section 2.2). Driving styles are often classified into a few types,
which are insufficient for representing the variety of driving styles regarding different
customers. The indicators for driving styles have been proposed in various papers.
This paper intends to fill the gap between driving style and driving cycle. We objec-
tively represented the driving style with objective indicators and implemented the driving
style when generating a driving cycle.

3. Development of the AVDC Tool

The AVDC Tool is capable of generating driving cycles based on various driving style
settings. In this section, the methods for development of the tool are described in detail.

3.1. Concept
According to the defined objective, the input of the tool is the driving style. In addition,
the output cycle is defined as a speed–time profile. The concept is explained in specific
detail in the following paragraphs.

3.1.1. Basic Concepts and Assumptions

The tool has been designed for the simulation of autonomously driven travel segments.
Therefore, the driving cycles can be determined for the autonomously driven segments
of L2 systems, up to fully autonomous L5 systems. The investigated AV is capable of
autonomous driving on well-maintained roadways without human driver intervention.
The AV can drive autonomously during the entire cycle.
Foreseeably, AVs will coexist with human-driven vehicles on the road. However,
communication between vehicles or between the vehicle and the infrastructure is not yet
feasible [44]. This leads to an environment in which the investigated AV can only collect
data from its own sensors. Other vehicles on the road are therefore assumed to be driven
by humans.
For simplification, only longitudinal dynamics were considered for all existing driving
cycles [8], due to their use for evaluating the consumption and emissions of the powertrain.
 World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 27

data from its own sensors. Other vehicles on the road are therefore assumed to be driven
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108 by humans. 5 of 26
For simplification, only longitudinal dynamics were considered for all existing driv-
ing cycles [8], due to their use for evaluating the consumption and emissions of the power-
train.
The The dynamics
lateral lateral dynamics were neglected
were neglected becausebecause their on
their impact impact on the powertrain
the powertrain concept concept
design
is marginal. A purely longitudinal evaluation offers the option of executingexecuting
design is marginal. A purely longitudinal evaluation offers the option of the drivingthe
driving
cycles oncycles on atest
a vehicle vehicle testInbench.
bench. In thegenerated
the cycles cycles generated by the
by the tool, thetool, the AV drives
AV merely merely
drives longitudinally
longitudinally along a along a virtual,
virtual, straightstraight road. Although
road. Although the AVthecanAV can overtake
overtake the
the front
front vehicle,
vehicle, the lateral
the lateral dynamics
dynamics and steering
and steering are disregarded.
are disregarded.
Thelongitudinal
The longitudinalmovement
movementofofthe theAVAVisiscontrolled
controlledwith
withananACC
ACCsystem.
[Link] Inaddition,
addition,
the AV can decide whether to overtake the front vehicle. The driving style
the AV can decide whether to overtake the front vehicle. The driving style of the AV affects of the AV af-
fects
the the parameters
parameters in the in
ACCthecontroller
ACC controller
and the and the overtaking
overtaking logic. logic.
InInthis
thispaper,
paper,weweconsider
consideronly autonomous
only autonomous passenger vehicles,
passenger so thesorespective
vehicles, user
the respective
requirements
user requirementsand the driving
and style were
the driving stylestudied, including
were studied, drivingdriving
including dynamics, drivingdriv-
dynamics, be-
havior, and driving
ing behavior, and conditions. Nevertheless,
driving conditions. this methodology
Nevertheless, can be usedcan
this methodology for commercial
be used for
vehicles
commercial withvehicles
appropriate
withmodifications.
appropriate modifications.

3.1.2.
[Link]
Structureofofthe
theTool
Tool
The
The structure of thetool
structure of the toolwas
wasdeveloped
developedon onthe
thebasis
basisof
ofthese
theseassumptions
assumptions(Figure
(Figure2).
2).
The
The driving style of the AV is the input of the tool, and the driving cycle is the [Link]
driving style of the AV is the input of the tool, and the driving cycle is the output. In
addition,
addition,driving
drivingconditions
conditionssuchsuchasas
traffic density,
traffic road
density, category,
road andand
category, speed limits
speed can can
limits be
entered intointo
be entered the tool as settings.
the tool as settings.

Input Settings
Driving Style Driving Conditions

Parameterisation of
Driving Style
AVDC Tool

Autonomous
Driving Scenario
Driving Algorithms

Simulation

Output
Driving Cycle

[Link]
Figure Structureofofthe
theAVDC
AVDCTool.
Tool.

Thedriving
The drivingstyle
styleinput
inputisisconverted
convertedintointothe
theparameters
parametersof ofthe
thedriving
drivingalgorithms,
algorithms,
consistingofofthe
consisting theACC
ACCsystem
systemand andthe
theovertaking
overtakingdecision.
[Link]
Inparallel,
parallel,the
thedriving
drivingscenario
scenario
isisgenerated
generatedbased
basedononthe
thedriving
drivingconditions.
[Link]
TheAVAVsimulates
simulatesdriving
drivingininthe
thegenerated
generated
scenariototorecord
scenario recordthe
thedriving
drivingcycle.
[Link]
Thetool
toolwas
wasimplemented
implementedvia viaMATLAB/Simulink.
MATLAB/Simulink.
According
Accordingto tothis
thisstructure,
structure,the
thethree
threemain
maintool
toolcomponents
componentswerewerethethedriving
drivingstyle,
style,
the
thedriving
drivingalgorithm,
algorithm,andandthe
thedriving
drivingscenario.
scenario.

3.2.
[Link]
Criterionfor
forDriving
DrivingStyle
Style
The driving style of
The driving style of an an AV
AV impacts
impactsthethepassengers’
passengers’evaluation
evaluationofofthethe ride
ride within
within the
the vehicle, and thus the vehicle concept itself. Furthermore, different passengers
vehicle, and thus the vehicle concept itself. Furthermore, different passengers prefer prefer
dif-
different drivingstyles
ferent driving stylesinindifferent
differentsettings.
[Link],
Therefore, in
in order
order to
to focus
focus on
on the
thepassenger
passenger
perspective,
perspective, customer-relevant properties—a metric commonly used in theautomotive
customer-relevant properties—a metric commonly used in the automotive
sector—were applied to evaluate driving style aspects on a nominal scale from 5 to 10 [45].
We defined the driving styles with the four aspects: comfort, safety, swiftness, and economy.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 27

sector—were applied to evaluate driving style aspects on a nominal scale from 5 to 10 [45].
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108 We defined the driving styles with the four aspects: comfort, safety, swiftness, and econ-
6 of 26
omy.

3.2.1. Comfort
3.2.1. Comfort
The first step in criteria development was that of choosing appropriate indicators. In
The first step in criteria development was that of choosing appropriate indicators.
the literature, acceleration 𝑎 and jerk 𝑗 are commonly used as indicators for ride comfort
In the literature, acceleration a and jerk j are commonly used as indicators for ride com-
[34,46–48].
fort [34,46–48].
The human
The human bodybodyhashas
different levels
different of of
levels sensitivity at different
sensitivity vibration
at different frequencies.
vibration frequencies.
ISO 2631-1 systematically studied the effects of mechanical vibration
ISO 2631-1 systematically studied the effects of mechanical vibration on humans on humans [49,50].
[49,50].
ForFor
seated people, as for passengers in vehicles, there are two frequency weightings,
seated people, as for passengers in vehicles, there are two frequency weightings, one
one
forfor
comfort (𝑊
comfort (Wd ) and
) andone for
one motion
for sickness
motion under
sickness longitudinal
under longitudinal vibration (𝑊
vibration f
(W) (Figure
) (Figure3). 3).
d f
These
Thesetwo
twoaspects
aspectshave different
have biological
different mechanisms
biological mechanisms and therefore
and different
therefore differentfrequency
frequency
weightings.
weightings. The
The acceleration weighted
acceleration weighted with𝑊W
with and𝑊
d andd Wf are called a𝑎comf and
are called
f
anda 𝑎sick
comf . .
sick

Figure 3. Frequency
Figure weighting
3. Frequency curves
weighting forfor
curves comfort and
comfort motion
and sickness
motion [49].
sickness [49].

TheThe instantaneous
instantaneous values
values were
were converted
converted into
into average
average values
values in in order
order to to develop
develop thethe
indicators for evaluating an entire trip. We used the root mean square (RMS), which is is
indicators for evaluating an entire trip. We used the root mean square (RMS), which
recommendedbybyISO
recommended ISO2631-1
2631-1 [49], where
wherethe thehigher
highervalue
valuehashas
a greater influence
a greater and should
influence and
then be given a higher weight. Therefore, three comfort indicators
should then be given a higher weight. Therefore, three comfort indicators were chosen— were chosen—a comf,RMS ,
asick,RMS
𝑎comf,RMS , 𝑎, and jRMS
sick,RMS
.
, and 𝑗RMS .
These
These indicators
indicators were
were then
then scaled
scaled into
into ratings
ratings between
between 5 and
5 and 10.10.
ForFor this
this purpose,
purpose,
we used driving data as reference values. A VW ID.3 and a
we used driving data as reference values. A VW ID.3 and a Tesla Model 3 were drivenTesla Model 3 were driven
around Munich for data collection [51]. Both test vehicles were equipped
around Munich for data collection [51]. Both test vehicles were equipped with OBD log- with OBD loggers
andand
gers smartphones
smartphones for for
measurement.
measurement. The The
measured signals
measured fromfrom
signals two devices were merged
two devices were
into one speed signal with an additional plausibility check.
merged into one speed signal with an additional plausibility check. The valid data The valid data meeting
meet-the
ingfollowing
the followingcriteria were were
criteria used used
for further scaling:
for further scaling:
• • The The driving
driving segment
segment was
was longer
longer than
than 1 km.
1 km.
• • The speed signal was continuous and
The speed signal was continuous and without without sudden
sudden changes.
changes.
• • The The measuredspeeds
measured speedsfrom
fromthe
theOBD
OBDand
and the
the smartphone
smartphone varied
varied bybyaamaximum
maximumofof5%.
Using these criteria, a total of 393 driving segments with a total distance of 1006 km
5%.
andUsing theseofcriteria,
duration 12.6 h were selected.
a total Since the
of 393 driving GPS sensor
segments withcaused
a totalstrong signal
distance noise,
of 1006 kmthe
signal was filtered with a low-pass filter.
and duration of 12.6 h were selected. Since the GPS sensor caused strong signal noise, the
The comfort indicators developed were then applied to these driving data. Figure 4
signal was filtered with a low-pass filter.
shows the distribution of the three indicators and their fitting of normal distribution, the
The comfort indicators developed were then applied to these driving data. Figure 4
parameters for which are listed in Table 1.
shows the distribution of the three indicators and their fitting of normal distribution, the
The indicators were scaled using the distribution function of the normal distribution,
parameters for which are listed in Table 1.
value from 0 to 1. Figure 5 shows the distribution function Pcomf of acomf,RMS . The other
The indicators were scaled using the distribution function of the normal distribution,
two indicators were scaled in the same way.
value from 0 to 1. Figure 5 shows the distribution function 𝑃comf of 𝑎comf,RMS . The other
two indicators were scaled in the same way.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 27

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108 7 of 26

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 27
Table 1. Parameters for normal distribution of comfort indicators.
Table 1. Parameters for normal distribution
Indicator Unit of comfort indicators.
𝝁 𝝈
Table 1. Parameters for normal distribution of comfort indicators.
𝑎Indicator
comf,RMS m/sUnit
2 0.1177 µ 0.0591σ
Indicator
𝑎sick,RMS Unit
m/s 2 𝝁
0.3365 𝝈
0.2160
acomf,RMS m/s 2 0.1177 0.0591
𝑗𝑎RMS m/s 0.1177 0.0591
2
comf,RMS m/s 3 0.8438 0.3890
asick,RMS m/s 2 0.3365 0.2160
𝑎sick,RMS m/s 2
3
0.3365 0.2160
jRMS m/s 0.8438 0.3890
𝑗RMS m/s3 0.8438 0.3890

Figure
[Link]
Figure [Link]
Distributions comfort
of comfortindicators
comfort indicatorsinin
indicators indriving
drivingdata.
driving data.
data.

Figure 5. Distribution function of a comfort indicator.

Distributionfunction
[Link]
Figure functionofofa acomfort
comfortindicator.
indicator.

ToTo assessananoverall
assess overallcomfort
comfortrating,
rating,the
thethree
three scaled indicatorsP 𝑃comf 𝑃sickand
, P,sick , and 𝑃𝑗
Pj need
To
need assess
to be an overall
merged into comfort
a single rating,
value. We the threescaled
combined the
indicators
scaled indicators
three values 𝑃comf
comf , 𝑃,sick
compared to, and
norm 𝑃𝑗
to be merged into a single value. We combined the three values compared
need to be merged into a single value. We combined the three values compared to norm to norm of vector
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108 8 of 26

and scaled the minimum and maximum value to rating 4 and 10 to calculate the comfort
rating Com f : q
 
Pcomf 2 + Psick 2 + Pj 2
Com f = 1 − √  × 6 + 4. (1)
3

Although the minimum input for driving style aspects was 5 in the AVDC Tool, the
indicator was scaled with a minimum of 4. Thus, given that it is undesirable, very poor
travel comfort could be avoided in the generated cycle.

3.2.2. Safety
As an aspect of driving style, safety refers to passengers’ feeling of safety, rather than
freedom from accidents, as all AVs should be running accident-free. Subjective safety is a
customer-relevant property, as different passengers could have different preferences.
We applied the safety margin SM from Lu et al. [37,38], whose definition is given
below: !
vego 2 vfront 2
SM = 1 − vego τrea + − /d, (2)
2aB,ego 2aB,front

where vego and vfront are the speed of the ego AV and the front vehicle, d is the distance to
the front vehicle, τrea is the reaction time for braking, and aB,ego and aB,front are the braking
decelerations of both vehicles.
According to Lu et al., the typical value for τrea is 0.15 s, and the braking deceleration
equals to 0.75 g for used tires on a flat road surface [37]. Finally, this results in the simplified
Equation (2):
"

#
vego + vfront vego − vfront
SM = 1 − 0.15s vego + /d. (3)
1.5 g

To evaluate the safety of the whole trip, the SM calculated with RMS. In contrast to the
comfort indicators, a lower SM represents a greater hazard where greater weight should be
placed. Therefore, only the RMS of the subtrahend was calculated:
("

# )
vego + vfront vego − vfront
SMRMS = 1 − 0.15s vego + /d . (4)
1.5 g
RMS

Thereafter, this indicator was scaled with the driving data into a rating. In Equation (4),
the distance and speed of front vehicle, which are not measured in most data collections,
are required. Lu et al. [37] provided the distribution of SM values from 34 taxi rides in
Beijing (Figure 6).
At several data points, the SM was larger than 1 because the subtrahend of Equation (4)
was negative. This was achieved when the ego vehicle was at a large distance from the
front vehicle and the distance was increasing, which can be considered a no-risk situation.
Therefore, these negative values were disregarded (set to zero) when calculating the RMS,
leading to an SMRMS smaller than 1. Consequently, only the distribution with SM < 1 was
used for the scaling. The cumulative distribution P(SM = 1) was given a rating of 10 and
P(SM = −∞) was given a rating of 4.
 𝑆𝑀 =1− 0,15𝑠 𝑣 +
.
/𝑑 . (4)

Thereafter, this indicator was scaled with the driving data into a rating. In Equation
(4), the distance and speed of front vehicle, which are not measured in most data collec-
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108 tions, are required. Lu et al. [37] provided the distribution of SM values from 34 taxi 9rides
of 26
in Beijing (Figure 6).

250
Mean = 0.8617
Std. Dev. =
200
0.11481
N = 4860
150

100

50

0
0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
SM
Figure 6.
Figure Histogram and
6. Histogram and distribution
distribution of SM data
of SM data [37].
[37].

3.2.3. Swiftness
In contrast to comfort and safety, swiftness is an objective aspect whose main criterion
for customers is travel time. For certain passengers, the shortest possible time on the road is
important. However, the actual travel time is strongly dependent on the distance travelled
and the road conditions, whereas driving style has only a limited influence. Therefore, the
real travel time ttrip was normalized with the minimum travel time tmin , which is the time
required if the vehicle always drives at the speed limit vmax on the entire route s:
Z s
dx
tmin = , (5)
0 vmax ( x )

ttrip
tnorm = (6)
tmin
According to German regulations, the speed limit is 50 km/h in the city and 100 km/h
on rural roads. There is no legal speed limit on the German motorway, so the recommended
speed of 130 km/h was used.
The normalized travel time tnorm was no longer dependent on the road categories
and distances, but it was still influenced by the driving scenario. Therefore, the scaling
was carried out for the value range of the indicator in the simulation. The maximum and
minimum possible travel time was calculated within the reasonable range of all control
parameters (the parameters and their ranges are defined in Section 3.5.1). According to the
simulation results, the upper and lower limits were 2.1 and 1.9, respectively.
The distribution function of the normal distribution was used for scaling the comfort
and safety indicators. Hence, the curve of the scaling had an S-shape (e.g., Figure 5). With
an S-curve, the function value is degressive at both boundaries. The S-shaped scaling is
suitable for subjective customer values, since the characteristics of various vehicle models
and the expectations of different customers are similar to the normal distribution [52].
However, the objective variables, such as travel time and consumption, are different. When
travel time or consumption is reduced, further reduction will be more difficult and costly.
Therefore, the value should not be degressive.
For this reason, we propose scaling the objective indicators logarithmically, whereby
an equal percentage improvement value leads to the same difference in rating. Figure 7
shows the logarithmic (7) and linear scaling (8) of the tnorm .

ylog ( x ) = b ln( a x ), (7)

ylin ( x ) = a x + b. (8)
 World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108 10 of 26

The limits for customer values were mapped to ratings of 10 and 5, with which the
World
WorldElectr.
[Link].
Veh.J.J.2022,
2022,13,
13,xxFOR
twoREVIEW
FORPEER
coefficients
PEERREVIEW
a and b can be determined. The swiftness rating Fast was calculated
10
10 of
with
of 27
27
the scaling function. Within the range used, the linear scaling approached the logarithmic
scaling because the change was small. Thus, linear scaling was used to simplify calculation.

Fast
Fast

Figure
Figure
Figure7.7.7. Scaling
Scaling
Scaling ofof
of the
the
the swiftness
swiftness
swiftness indicator.
indicator.
indicator.
3.2.4. Economy
3.2.4.
[Link]
Economy
Whereas swiftness concerns time saving, economy refers to energy saving, which
Whereas
Whereasswiftness
swiftnessconcerns
concernstime timesaving,
saving,economy
economyrefers referstotoenergy
energysaving,
saving,whichwhichre- re-
reduces the operating cost of the vehicle. The evaluation of efficiency is one typical
duces
duces the operating
the operating cost of the
costcycles. vehicle.
of the vehicle. The evaluation of efficiency is one typical applica-
application of driving In this The
paper,evaluation
electric driven of efficiency
AVs were is oneinvestigated,
typical applica- and
tion
tion of
of driving
driving cycles.
cycles. In
In this
this paper,
paper, electric
electric driven
driven AVs
AVs were
were investigated,
investigated, and the
the con-
andsimulationcon-
the consumption is described as the energy consumed per 100 km. In the
sumption
sumption isisdescribed
described as
asthe
the energy
energyconsumed
consumed per
per100
100km. km. In
Inthe simulation
simulationfor
theopen-source for the
thedriv-
driv-
for the driving cycle, the consumption was calculated using an longitudinal
ing
ing cycle,
cycle, the
the consumption
consumption was
was calculated
calculated using
using an
an open-source
open-source longitudinal
longitudinal dynamics
dynamics
dynamics simulation (LDS) [53]. The simulated speed profile was entered into the LDS,
simulation
simulation (LDS)
(LDS)[53].
[53]. The
Thesimulated
simulated speed profile was
wasentered into the
theLDS, which cal-
which calculated the electrical energyspeed
consumedprofile during entered intocycle
the driving LDS, whichto
according cal-
the
culated
culated the electrical energy consumed during the driving cycle according to the vehicle
vehiclethe electrical energy consumed during the driving cycle according to the vehicle
parameters.
parameters.
parameters.
To exclude the influence of the route, the consumption of the AV b100km,el was normal-
To exclude
izedTo exclude
with
the
theinfluence
a reference influence
consumption
of
ofthe
thebroute,
route, the
theconsumption
consumptionof ofthe
theAV
100km,ref of the front vehicle, which followed
AV 𝑏𝑏 , , was
awas
nor-
nor-
standard
malized
malized with
with aa reference
reference consumption
consumption 𝑏𝑏 , ,
of
of the
the front
front vehicle,
vehicle, which
which followed
followed aa
cycle. The normalized consumption bnorm represents the economy:
standard
standardcycle.
[Link] Thenormalized consumption 𝑏𝑏
normalizedconsumption represents
representsthe theeconomy:
economy:
b
b𝑏norm
𝑏 === 100km,el ,,
. .. (9)(9)
(9)
b100km,ref
,,

Similar
Similarto
Similar totoswiftness,
swiftness,the
swiftness, theeconomy
the economyindicator
economy indicatorwas
indicator wasalso
was alsoscaled
also scaledlinearly
scaled linearlywith
linearly withupper
with upperand
upper and
and
lower
lower limits,
lowerlimits, which
limits,which were
whichwere 20%
were20% savings
20%savings and
savingsand 20%
and20% higher
20%higher consumption
higherconsumption (compared
(comparedtotooriginal
consumption(compared to original
original
standard
standardcycle
standard cycleused
cycle usedfor
used fortraffic
for trafficvehicles),
traffic vehicles),respectively.
vehicles), respectively. Figure
respectively. Figure888shows
Figure showsthe
shows the economy
theeconomy indica-
economyindicator
indica-
tor
torscaling.
scaling.
scaling.

Figure
Figure8.8.8.
Figure Scaling
Scaling of
Scaling the
ofoftheeconomy
theeconomyindicator.
economyindicator.
indicator.

3.3.
[Link]
AutonomousDriving
DrivingAlgorithms
Algorithms
Given
Given that our focuswas
that our focus wasononthe
themixed
mixedtraffic
trafficof
ofAVs
AVsand
andnon-AVs
non-AVsduring
duringthe
thenext
next
decade,
decade, known
known algorithms
algorithms were
were chosen
chosen for
for modelling
modelling andand simulation.
simulation. According
According totothe
the
concept
conceptbehind
behindthe
theAVDC
AVDCTool,
Tool,the
theinvestigated
investigatedAV AVdrives
drivesalong
alongaastraight
straightroad.
[Link]-
There-
fore,
fore,the
theAV
AVisiscontrolled
controlledby
bythe
theACC
ACC(Adaptive
(AdaptiveCruise
CruiseControl)
Control)system.
system.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108 11 of 26

3.3. Autonomous Driving Algorithms

Given that our focus was on the mixed traffic of AVs and non-AVs during the next
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
decade, known algorithms were chosen for modelling and simulation. According11toofthe 27

concept behind the AVDC Tool, the investigated AV drives along a straight road. Therefore,
the AV is controlled by the ACC (Adaptive Cruise Control) system.
The
The ACC
ACC was
was modelled
modelled with
with aa cascade
cascade control,
control, consisting
consisting of
of aa distance
distance controller
controller
and a speed controller [54] (p. 874) (Figure 9). The target distance 𝑥 rel,set
and a speed controller [54] (p. 874) (Figure 9). The target distance x ,
was
wasequal
equalto
to the
the
desired time headway
desired time headway sett 𝑡 multiplied by its ego velocity
multiplied by its ego velocityegov 𝑣 , adding the static distance
, adding the static distance d0
to
𝑑 maintain a safe
to maintain distance
a safe at standstill:
distance at standstill:
𝑥 , ==
xrel,set 𝑣 tset
vego 𝑡 ++
d0𝑑. . (10)
(10)

ACC Logic 𝑣
+𝑑 𝑡

𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑣 , + 𝑎 𝑥
𝑃 𝑃
Front 𝑣 − − Ego- 𝑣
Vehicle Vehicle
𝑥 𝑣
𝑎 𝑎

− +
− +

Figure9.
Figure 9. Block
Block scheme
scheme of
of ACC
ACC controller
controllerbased
basedon
on[54]
[54](p.
(p. 874).
874).

Foraasimple
For simpleimplementation,
implementation, thethe distance
distance andand
speed speed controllers
controllers were were both P-con-
both P-controlled
trolled with P-coefficient 𝑃 and 𝑃 . In the tool, the two P-controllers
with P-coefficient Pv and Pa . In the tool, the two P-controllers have been modelled have been modelled
as a
as a lookup
lookup table,
table, whichwhich
allowsallows a variable
a variable proportional
proportional [Link]
coefficient. Forexample,
example,different
different
PP values
valuescould
couldbe beused
usedfor foracceleration
acceleration and
and deceleration,
deceleration, or or
forfor
lowlow
andand
highhigh control
control er-
errors.
[Link] the ego vehicle is not hindered by the front vehicle, the ACC controller operates
in free drivethe
When mode; the distance
ego vehicle is not controller
hindered by is not
the functional,
front vehicle,and the
the speed
ACC controller
controller is
oper-
regulated
ates in freetodrive
the set speedthe
mode; vsetdistance
. controller is not functional, and the speed controller
In orderto
is regulated tothe
achieve 𝑣 .
a comfortable
set speed ride using ACC, the output set acceleration aset and
its derivation
In order were limited
to achieve a with saturation
comfortable rideatusing
the lower
ACC,and theupper
outputlimits. ISO 15622:2018
set acceleration 𝑎
defines
and itsthe limits of acceleration
derivation were limitedand jerksaturation
with of full speed at range ACC system
the lower and upper[55]. limits.
The upperISO
and lower limits
15622:2018 definesarethe
speed-dependent,
limits of acceleration as shown in Figure
and jerk of full10.
speed range ACC system [55].
In the standard,
The upper and loweronly limits the
are limit for negative jerk
speed-dependent, asisshown
given in
[55]. To ensure
Figure 10. ride comfort,
we defined the upper limit with same absolute value (Figure 11).
In addition to ACC, automatic emergency braking (AEB) was also implemented in the
driving algorithms in order to avoid a collision with the front vehicle. When the ACC is set
to a comfortable driving style, the AV may not brake with enough deceleration as the front
vehicle slows. The AEB can interfere to firmly brake the vehicle and prevent an accident.
During the simulated trip, the ego AV can choose to overtake traffic vehicles. Therefore,
overtaking logic is required to decide whether the AV will overtake. Since only 1-D
movement in the longitudinal direction was considered by the tool, an overtake was
simulated as the masking out of the front vehicle, after which the AV can detect and follow
the next vehicle ahead. When the ego AV has been overtaken, the overtaking traffic vehicle
cuts in and becomes the new front vehicle for the AV.
 ates in free drive mode; the distance controller is not functional, and the speed controller
is regulated to the set speed 𝑣 .
In order to achieve a comfortable ride using ACC, the output set acceleration 𝑎
and its derivation were limited with saturation at the lower and upper limits. ISO
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108 15622:2018 defines the limits of acceleration and jerk of full speed range ACC system12[55].
of 26
The upper and lower limits are speed-dependent, as shown in Figure 10.

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 27

Figure 10. Upper and lower limits of acceleration according to ISO 15622:2018 [55].

In the standard, only the limit for negative jerk is given [55]. To ensure ride comfort,
we defined the upper limit with same absolute value (Figure 11).
Figure 10. Upper and lower limits of acceleration according to ISO 15622:2018 [55].
j /(m/s 2 )

Figure [Link]
Figure Upperand lower
and limits
lower ofof
limits jerk based
jerk basedonon[55].
[55].

InTwo criteria
addition towere
ACC,designed
automatic foremergency
the overtaking logic:(AEB) was also implemented in
braking
the
1. driving algorithms
The speed in order
of front to avoid
vehicle a collision
vfront is lower than with theset
the front vehicle.
speed vset byWhen
morethe ACC
than the
is set totolerance
a comfortable driving style,
threshold vovt,tol : the AV may not brake with enough deceleration as
the front vehicle slows. The AEB can interfere vfront < vto firmly brake the vehicle and prevent an
set − vovt,tol . (11)
accident.
2. During
The estimated distance
the simulated trip, required
the ego AV forcan choosedto
overtake ovt,req is shorter
overtake trafficthan the available
vehicles. There-
distance d ovt , where overtaking is allowed:
fore, overtaking logic is required to decide whether the AV will overtake. Since only 1-D
movement in the longitudinal direction was considered by the tool, an overtake was sim-
dovt,req < dovt . (12)
ulated as the masking out of the front vehicle, after which the AV can detect and follow
the nextThevehicle [Link]
permission When the egoand
overtaking AV the
has corresponding
been overtaken, theisovertaking
dovt explained intraffic vehi-
Section 3.4.
cle cutsFigure
in and12becomes the new front vehicle for the AV.
shows the state diagram for the overtaking logic. When all conditions are
Two criteria
fulfilled for threewere designed
seconds, for the overtaking
an overtake is initiated bylogic:
the ego AV. This time delay produces
[Link]
Theovertaking decisions.
speed of front vehicle 𝑣
Otherwise, the state
is lower could
than the change 𝑣
rapidly
set speed in borderline
by more than cases.
the
After the overtaking
tolerance has 𝑣
threshold been, started,
: the required distance dovt,req continues to be examined
according to (11). If the available dovt is no longer sufficient, the overtaking process will
𝑣 <𝑣 −𝑣 . (11)an
be aborted. In this case, no new overtaking attempt, can be started for 10 s (to avoid
2. The estimated distance required for overtake 𝑑 , is shorter than the available
distance 𝑑 , where overtaking is allowed:
𝑑 , <𝑑 . (12)
 World
World Electr.
Electr. [Link]. J. 2022,
J. 2022, 13, 13, 108 PEER REVIEW
x FOR 13 of1327
of 26

attempt-abort
avoid loop). When
an attempt-abort loop). the
WhenegotheAVegois 5AV
m ahead of the overtaken
is 5 m ahead vehicle,vehicle,
of the overtaken the overtake
the
has been successfully completed.
overtake has been successfully completed.
When
When thethe logic
logic isthe
is in in the overtake
overtake state,
state, the the set speed
set speed of ACC 𝑣 vset
of ACC is increased
is increased by by
5 %5%
to make the overtake faster and reduce the likelihood of an abort. When the overtake hashas
to make the overtake faster and reduce the likelihood of an abort. When the overtake
been
been completed
completed or or aborted,
aborted, 𝑣 vsetisisreset
thethe resettotothe
thenormal
normalstate.
state.

Standby

Criteria Criteria
fulfilled unfulfilled

Prepare for
overtake

After 3 seconds

Overtaking
After 2 seconds After 10 seconds

After 3 seconds

Overtake Distance for overtake

finished not enough

Overtake Overtake
finished aborted

Figure 12.12.
Figure Overtaking logic
Overtaking state
logic diagram.
state diagram.

In In addition
addition to algorithms,
to algorithms, thethe sensors
sensors andand actuators
actuators of the
of the AVAV were
were also
also modelled.
modelled.
TheThe modelledAV
modelled AVcould
could use
use radar
radar and
andcamaras
camarasforfor thethe
implemented
implemented ACC functions,
ACC which
functions,
is the
which is industry
the industry standard.
[Link] sensors
sensorswere modelled
were modelled at aat250 mm
a 250 detection
detectionrate
rateand
andcan
canmeasure
measurethe thedistance
distance and
andspeed
speed of of
thethe
front vehicle.
front The
vehicle. Thelatency of measurement
latency of measurement waswas set to
0.2 s, and the measurement error has been neglected
set to 0.2 s, and the measurement error has been neglected in the tool. in the tool.
TheTheAVAV being
being investigated
investigated is assumed
is assumed to to have
have anan electrical
electrical powertrain.
powertrain. The The desired
desired
acceleration a is first limited between 5 m/s 2 and −8 m/s2 , considering the torque of
acceleration 𝑎 setis first limited between 5 m/s2 and −8 m/s2, considering the torque of
driving
driving motor
motor and andthethe friction
friction of the
of the tires.
tires. TheThe powertrain
powertrain is then
is then modelled
modelled as aasfirst-order
a first-order
inertial
inertial element
element witha a0.5
with 0.5s stime
timeconstant,
constant, where
where the desiredaset
the desired 𝑎 is the input,
is the andand
input, the actual
the
acceleration a
actual acceleration 𝑎 ego is the output.
is the output.
3.4. Driving Scenario
3.4. Driving Scenario
According to the basic concepts in Section 3.1.1, the ego AV is traveling in mixed traffic
According to the basic concepts in Section 3.1.1, the ego AV is traveling in mixed
consisting of human-driven vehicles and AVs. Since no communication exists between
traffic consisting of human-driven vehicles and AVs. Since no communication exists be-
vehicles, all traffic vehicles can be considered to be human-driven. The existing driving
tween vehicles, all traffic vehicles can be considered to be human-driven. The existing
cycles, which were developed with real driving data, are intended to represent typical use
driving cycles, which were developed with real driving data, are intended to represent
of the vehicles. Therefore, we used these driving cycles for the traffic.
typical use of the vehicles. Therefore, we used these driving cycles for the traffic.
For simplification, it was assumed that the traffic vehicles were driving at the same
Forinterval
time simplification, it was aassumed
and following that thecycle
certain driving traffic vehicles
from were
the same drivingThus,
position. at theall
same
traffic
time interval and following a certain driving cycle from the same position. Thus,
vehicles were at the same speed and in the same position, but traveling at different times. all traffic
vehicles
During were at the same
the journey, it isspeed andthat
possible in the
the same
trafficposition,
vehicles but traveling
would overlapat at
different times.e.g.,
some times,
During
during a standstill longer than the interval. This overlap was handled in the traffictimes,
the journey, it is possible that the traffic vehicles would overlap at some module,
e.g., during
since onlyathestandstill longer
front vehicle than
can the interval.
be detected by the This
egooverlap
vehicle, was handled
whereas otherintraffic
the traffic
vehicles
module,
have no since only the
influence. front vehicle
Furthermore, thecan be detected
traffic by the
vehicles were notego vehicle,
affected by whereas other
the ego vehicle.
traffic vehicles
The ego vehicle may overtake traffic on those sections of the route where doingby
have no influence. Furthermore, the traffic vehicles were not affected so is
thepermitted.
ego [Link], the route needs to be processed to determine whether overtaking is
allowed.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108 14 of 26

First, it was necessary to increase the sampling rate of the traffic driving cycle. Since
the existing driving cycles are normally driven by drivers or robots on the test bench,
the speed profile of the cycles is defined in data points per second (1 Hz). The electronic
systems of AV can react within the millisecond range, and one second is too long for use as
a simulation time step for the autonomous driving algorithms; the ACC cannot control the
AV smoothly, and the AEB does not react in time because it intervenes only a few seconds
before an accident. For this reason, the simulation time step must be shorter. In the tool, the
time step was set to 0.02 s, or 50 Hz. Therefore, the profile was also interpolated to a 50 Hz
sampling rate. The modified-Akima interpolation in MATLAB was utilized to prevent
overshoots.
Permission for overtaking is determined using the interpolated speed profile. The
route sections are marked as permissible for overtaking if they fulfill the following two
criteria:
1. The speed is within a window of 15 km/h for at least 20 s. This means that the vehicle
travels at an approximately constant speed in the route section. If the speed changes
rapidly, overtaking is inappropriate.
2. The minimum speed in the window is higher than 30 km/h. The vehicle drives slowly
when hindered by the driving environment, e.g., traffic lights or congestion. In these
situations, overtaking is also inappropriate.
Using these criteria, all positions along the route are assessed as to whether an overtake
is permissible. The distance available for overtaking dovt at each position is then calculated.
This means the distance to the next point from which overtaking is not allowed. An
overtaking operation must be completed within dovt .
In addition, the ego vehicle can be overtaken by traffic. The vehicles behind the ego
vehicle are masked out until they are 20 m ahead of the ego vehicle, i.e., the overtaking
traffic vehicle cuts in 20 m in front of the ego vehicle and then becomes detectable. At stops,
the ego vehicle stops a few meters (static distance d0 ) behind the front vehicle. The rear
traffic vehicle drives in front of the ego vehicle and stops at the same position as the front
vehicle. The distance does not reach 20 m and the vehicle remains hidden. When the front
vehicle starts moving, the ego vehicle can move and follow the same front vehicle.
Furthermore, the road categories need to be identified to determine the speed limit.
Under Germany’s traffic regulations, the maximum speed limit is 50 km/h in the city and
100 km/h on rural roads. There is no speed limit on German motorways, so the recom-
mended speed of 130 km/h is applied. The road categories are identified for microtrips,
which are defined as the sections between two adjacent stops. The road categories are
determined according to the highest speed of the microtrip vtrip,max (Table 2). This method
is particularly suitable for the driving cycles built with several microtrips selected from
different categories, e.g., WLTC [13].

Table 2. Classification of road categories according to the highest speed.

Road Category Highest Speed in km/h

Urban vtrip,max ≤ 60
Rural 60 < vtrip,max < 110
Motorway vtrip,max ≥ 110

Some driving cycles are designed for a specific road category. Specifically, the Eu-
ropean ARTEMIS project has three cycles each for urban roads, rural roads, and motor-
ways [56,57]. In this case, the corresponding category is set for the cycle.

3.5. Parameterization of Driving Style

After the completion of the described modules, it was possible to determine the
parameters for different driving styles. As discussed in Section 3.2, four aspects were
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 27

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108 15 of 26

After the completion of the described modules, it was possible to determine the pa-
rameters for different driving styles. As discussed in Section 3.2, four aspects were de-
fined—comfort, safety,
defined—comfort, safety,swiftness,
swiftness,and
andeconomy.
economy. EachEach aspect
aspect was
was assigned
assigned aa rating
rating from
from
5 to 10, where 5 is the lowest but still acceptable, and 10 is best value
5 to 10, where 5 is the lowest but still acceptable, and 10 is best value for users. for users.
Every controller
Every controller parameter
parameter of of the
the AV
AV influences
influences multiple
multiple aspects
aspects simultaneously.
simultaneously. We We
used data-based
used data-based modelling
modelling to to analyze
analyze thethe interdependencies
interdependenciesbetween
betweenthe the aspects
aspects andand the
the
parameters.
parameters.
Figure 13 shows
Figure shows the theworkflow
workflowofofthis thisprocess. First,
process. thethe
First, setting parameters
setting parameterswerewere
cho-
chosen and used to generate test points with DoE (Design of Experiment) ( ). The settest
sen and used to generate test points with DoE (Design of Experiment) (①). The
1 set of of
points
test were
points then
were input
then inputinto simulation
into simulationand andthe
thegenerated
generatedcycles
cycles evaluated
evaluated for driving
driving
style aspects
style aspects ((②). These data
2 ). These data were
were used
used to to build the numerical model for each aspect ((③). 3 ).
Theparameters
The parametersfor fordifferent
differentdriving
drivingstyles
styleswere
weregenerated
generatedwithwiththese
thesemodels
models( (④).
4 ).

Parameters ④ Customer Properties

①
Relationship
③
Test Points Driving Style Aspects
② ②

Controller
Evaluation
Parameters Trip Simulation
(Driving Style
(ACC and with Traffic
Indicators)
Overtaking)
3.3 3.4 3.2

Figure 13. Workflow for parameterizing the driving style.

Figure 13. Workflow for parameterizing the driving style.
3.5.1. Definition of Setting Parameters
3.5.1. Definition of Setting Parameters
As setting parameters, we chose eight parameters having a significant influence from
among Asthe
setting parameters,
autonomous we chose
driving eight parameters
algorithms (Table 3). having a significant influence from
among the autonomous driving algorithms (Table 3).
Table 3. AV setting parameters.
Table 3. AV setting parameters.
Parameter Unit Min. Value Ref. Value Max. Value Description
Parameter Unit Min. Value Ref. Value Max. Value Description
t s 0.5 2 3 Set time headways of ACC
𝑡 s 0.5 set 2 3 Set time headways of ACC
𝑃 - 0.3 Pa -
0.7 0.3
2 0.7 2 P-coefficient of speed controller
P-coefficient of speed controller
𝐶 - 0.66Cbrk - 1 0.66 1.5 1 1.5Coefficient
Coefficient for deceleration
for deceleration
𝑃 - 0.03P - 0.07 0.03 0.2 0.07 P-coefficient
0.2 ofP-coefficient of distance
distance controller
v
𝐶 - 0.8 1 1.2 controller
Coefficient for set speed
𝑎 m/s2 1 Cvset - 2 0.8 4 1 1.2
Maximum Coefficient for
acceleration set speed
of ACC
𝑗 m/s3 2 amax m/s25 1 10 2 4 Maximum jerk ofacceleration
Maximum ACC of ACC
𝑣 , km/h 5 jmax m/s203 2 40 5 Tolerance
10 speed for overtaking
Maximum jerk of ACC
vovt,tol km/h 5 20 40 Tolerance speed for overtaking
The first seven parameters belong to the ACC system. The 𝑡 , 𝑃 , and 𝑃 are ex-
plained in Section 3.3. The reference values were determined according to [54]. The coef-
The𝐾first describes
ficient seven parameters
the ratiobelong
of 𝑃 , to the
andACC
𝑃 , system. The tset , Pdirection
in a negative a , and Pv are
to 𝑃explained
and 𝑃
in Section 3.3. The reference
in the positive direction: values were determined according to [54]. The coefficient Kbrk
describes the ratio of Pa,neg and Pv,neg in a negative direction to Pa and Pv in the positive
direction: 𝑃, =𝐶 𝑃, (13)
Pa,neg = Cbrk Pa , (13)
𝑃 =𝐶 𝑃. (14)
Pv,neg, = Cbrk Pv . (14)
Figure 14 shows the speed controller with different Pa in the positive and negative
directions.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 27

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108 16 of 26

Figure 14 shows the speed controller with different 𝑃 in the positive and negative
directions.
The coefficientv 𝑣 represents
Thecoefficient represents the
the relative
relative target
target speed.
speed. The
The ACC
ACC target
target vset𝑣 is
speed
speed
para
is equal to 𝑣 times speed limit 𝑣
equal to vpara times speed limit vmax : :
𝑣 =𝐶 𝑣 . (15)
vset = Cvset vmax . (15)
The maximum value of 𝑣 is 1.2. When 𝑣 is greater than 1, the 𝑣 will not
The maximum value of vpara is 1.2. When vpara is greater than 1, the vset will not
exceed the speed limit 𝑣 in the city or on rural roads, but the AV can drive faster than
exceed the speed limit vmax in the city or on rural roads, but the AV can drive faster than
the recommend speed of 130 km/h on the highway. Figure 15 shows the 𝑣 for different
the recommend speed of 130 km/h on the highway. Figure 15 shows the vset for different
road categories with different 𝐶 .
road categories with different Cvset .
The limits of acceleration and jerk in the ACC are not fixed values, but rather speed-
The limits of acceleration and jerk in the ACC are not fixed values, but rather speed-
dependent characteristic curves (Figures 10 and 11). When the limits 𝑎 and 𝑗 are
dependent characteristic curves (Figures 10 and 11). When the limits amax and jmax are
varied, the shape of the characteristic curve is maintained, i.e., 𝑎 and 𝑗 are halved
varied, the shape of the characteristic curve is maintained, i.e., amax and jmax are halved at
at a speed of 20 m/s.
a speed of 20 m/s.

𝑒 =𝑣 −𝑣

𝐶 𝑃

Figure14.
Figure [Link]
DifferentP-coefficient
P-coefficientin
inthe
thepositive
positiveand
andnegative
negativedirections.
directions.

160
140
120
100
80
60
40 urban
20 rural
motorway
0
0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2
Cvset
vset

Figure15.
Figure [Link]
Targetspeed
speedfor
fordifferent
differentroad
roadcategories.
categories.

The
Thevariable 𝑣 , is aisparameter
variablevovt,tol in the
a parameter inovertaking logic (10).
the overtaking logicThe higher
(10). The the vovt,tol
higher the,
𝑣 slower
the , , thethe front
slower vehicle
the front speed that
vehicle the
speed AV
thatcan
the tolerate.
AV can tolerate.

3.5.2.
3.5.2. Design
Design of
of the
theExperiment
Experiment
The
The setting parameters and
setting parameters and their
their value
value ranges
ranges were
were entered
entered into
into the
the Model
Model Based
Based
Calibration
Calibration toolbox (MBC) of MATLAB [58]. The test points were generated using
toolbox (MBC) of MATLAB [58]. The test points were generated using MBC,
MBC,
with
withevery
everytest
testpoint
pointconsisting
consistingofofeight
eightvalid
validvalues
valuesforforeach
eachparameter.
[Link]
Thetest
testpoints
points
were
were designed
designed according
according to
to the
the experimental
experimental design
design toto fill
fill evenly
evenly and
and completely
completely the
the
high-dimensional
high-dimensional space of the input parameters. The Sobol sequence in theMBC
space of the input parameters. The Sobol sequence in the MBCtoolbox
toolbox
was used for the test design. To determine the appropriate size of the test set, four sets with
different sizes were generated: 256, 512, 1024, and 2048 test points. Apart from the test sets,
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108 17 of 26

a validation set was generated using a different method—Latin hypercube—because the

test points were generated partially randomly. Therefore, the validation set did not overlap
with the test sets. The validation set consisted of 100 test points.
The four test sets and the validation set were input into the simulation. Since we were
investigating the traffic environment in Germany, the European ARTEMIS cycles were used
for traffic [57]. The WLTC has a significantly lower acceleration than ARTEMIS, so it cannot
match the use case in Germany. The three cycles in ARTEMIS—urban road, rural road, and
motorway—were simulated consecutively. The driving style indicators for the three road
categories were combined for the evaluation of the driving style aspects. Subsequently,
each test point was assigned ratings for comfort, safety, swiftness, and economy.
The validation set was filtered according to the results of the simulation, i.e., only the
points with a sum of the four aspects exceeding 28 were selected (Com f + Sa f e + Fast +
Eco > 28). Points with a lower rating are not included because a poor overall rating means
an unfavorable combination of parameters. Out of 100 points in the validation set, 90 points
fulfilled this criterion.

3.5.3. Modelling of Driving Style Aspects

Using the data of test sets, models of the four driving style aspects were built indi-
vidually. The MBC toolbox offers several types of models, among which the Radial-Basis-
Function (RBF), Hybrid-RBF, and Gaussian-Process-Model (GPM) methods were used. For
each model, numerous model variants were generated using these three methods and were
checked with the validation set. The model variant with the smallest root mean square
error (RMSE) during the validation was selected. The response models of the four aspects
and eight parameters are shown in Appendix A. To determine the appropriate size of the
test set, the four test sets were each modelled and validated. The validation RMSEs of the
four aspects in four test sets are listed in Table 4.

Table 4. Validation RMSE of the driving style aspects in the test sets.

Valid. RMSE Comfort Safety Swiftness Economy

256 points 0.506 0.185 0.234 0.079
512 points 0.424 0.157 0.191 0.082
1024 points 0.363 0.141 0.157 0.075
2048 points 0.354 0.123 0.141 0.068

With the increase of the test set, RMSE can be reduced regressively, and no overfitting
appears. In the following steps, the test set with 1024 points was used since 2048 points
offered only a small advantage and increased the calculation time considerably.

3.5.4. Generation of the Parameter Set

The parameter set consists of the lookup table of the setting parameters. For each
desired combination of driving style aspects, the parameter set gives the corresponding
values of the eight parameters. The aspects are given as integers between 5 and 10, i.e., each
aspect has six possible input values.
The four aspects are coupled with complicated interdependencies. Three of them—
comfort, safety, and swiftness—are selected as free inputs, while the fourth—economy—is
optimized using the model. For calculation of the parameters, the three free aspects are
entered as constraints and the economy is maximized. This optimization problem can then
be mathematically represented:

max Eco (tset , Pa , . . . , vovt,tol )

s.t. Com f (tset , Pa , . . . , vovt,tol ) = Com f set ,
(16)
Sa f e(tset , Pa , . . . , vovt,tol ) = Sa f eset ,
Fast(tset , Pa , . . . , vovt,tol ) = Fastset .
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108 18 of 26

This approach offers several advantages: First, one of the aspects (economy) is op-
timized. Second, the problem has only three constraints instead of four, so it is easier to
find the parameters that satisfy the constraints. Third, the solution to an optimization
problem is usually unique. Otherwise, it might be difficult to choose the parameters from
among multiple solutions. Economy was chosen as the optimization objective because most
customers prefer lower consumption, and thus low operating costs. Reducing consumption
is also central to the sustainable development of the automotive industry.
Given that the indicators of comfort and safety were scaled degressively, the rating 10
represents an infinite value for the indicators. Thus, customer ratings of 10 in the constraints
are slightly reduced until a solution is available.
Since the three free aspects each have six possible values, the number of combinations
of the inputs is 63 = 216. However, not all combinations can be solved through optimization,
i.e., some combinations cannot be achieved regardless of the parameters. The achievable
range is approximately an inclined plane, which means that three aspects cannot all have
high (or low) ratings at the same time. The optimization successfully solves 55 out of 216
combinations. The parameters of 55 combinations constitute the parameter set for the
driving style.
The 55 points in the parameter set were again entered into the simulation to validate
the modelled driving style ratings. The RMSEs of the model and the simulation are shown
in Table 5. The RMSEs of the parameter set somewhat higher than those of the model, but
are acceptable.

Table 5. Validation RMSE of the parameter set.

Comfort Safety Swiftness

Model RMSE 0.363 0.141 0.157
Parameter set RMSE 0.440 0.239 0.255

All work packages for the tool have been developed at this point.

4. Results
A graphical user interface was designed using App Designer in MATLAB, to make it
easier for users to interact with the tool. The interface is shown in Appendix B.
The main feature of the AVDC Tool is the generation of driving cycles for different
driving styles. 55 styles were configured during the parameterization. In this section, three
typical configurations have been selected for presentation and discussion of results:
• Comfortable driving style with Com f = 10, Sa f e = 9, Fast = 6,
• Safe driving style with Com f = 8, Sa f e = 10, Fast = 5,
• Swift driving style with Com f = 7, Sa f e = 6, Fast = 10.
Each driving style selected has a maximum rating of 10 on one of the driving style
aspects, so the features of the different aspects are distinct. The parameters of the three
driving styles are listed in Table 6, along with a comparison to the reference values.
The three driving styles show clear differences in the parameters. The comfortable
driving style has the lowest Pa so the AV reacts smoothly to speed differences. The low
vpara and high vovt,tol make the comfortable driving style patient and slow. The safe driving
style has some similarities to the comfortable style, e.g., similar tset , low vpara and amax , and
high vovt,tol . However, the safe driving style has a much higher Pa in order to allow the AV
to adapt quickly to the speed of the front vehicle. One typical feature of the safe driving
style is a Kbrk greater than 1, which means the AV tends to brake hard and accelerate gently.
For the swift driving style, a short time headway tset is maintained. With high Pa and Pv ,
and a Kbrk smaller than 1, the AV can accelerate aggressively. In this driving style, the
limitations amax and jmax are also increased. The high vpara and low vovt,tol mean that the
AV tends to drive fast and will not tolerate a slow front vehicle.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108 19 of 26

Table 6. Setting parameters for the selected driving styles.

Parameter Unit Ref. Value Comfortable Safe Swift

tset s 2 2.43 2.40 0.65
Pa - 0.7 0.50 1.43 1.49
Cbrk - 1 1.00 1.30 0.86
Pv - 0.07 0.15 0.04 0.12
Cvset - 1 0.80 0.80 1.06
amax m/s2 2 1.93 1.46 3.91
jmax m/s3 5 5.96 4.52 8.61
vovt,tol km/h 20 26.00 20.77 11.16

ARTEMIS cycles were used for the driving scenarios, consisting of three cycles for
urban roads, rural roads, and motorways. Thus, autonomous cycles were generated
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, xseparately for three road categories. Figure 16 shows the cycles for the comfortable
FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 27 driving
style.

Urban
60
ego-vehicle
front vehicle

40

20

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
t/s
Rural

100

50

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
t/s
Motorway
150

100

50

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
t/s

FigureFigure 16. Driving cycles for the comfortable driving style.

16. Driving cycles for the comfortable driving style.
With the comfortable driving style, the speed fluctuations of the traffic vehicle are
well smoothed to achieve more comfort. Because the AV is driving relatively slow, it was
overtaken several times during the cycles on rural road and motorway.
Figure 17 shows the urban cycle of the safe driving style for comparison. Compared
to the comfortable style, the speed was adjusted rapidly to match the front vehicle with
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108 20 of 26

With the comfortable driving style, the speed fluctuations of the traffic vehicle are
well smoothed to achieve more comfort. Because the AV is driving relatively slow, it was
overtaken several times during the cycles on rural road and motorway.
Figure 17 shows the urban cycle of the safe driving style for comparison. Compared
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
to the 21 ofthe
comfortable style, the speed was adjusted rapidly to match the front vehicle with 27
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER
safeREVIEW
riding style. The smoothing effect was significantly lower. 21 of 27

Figure 17. Urban cycle for the safe driving style.

Figure 17. Urban cycle for the safe driving style.
Figure 17. Urban cycle for the safe driving style.
Figure
Figure 18
18 shows
shows the
the motorway
motorway cycle
cycle for
for the
the swift
swift driving
driving style.
style. The
TheAV
AV drove
drove at
at aa
Figure
higher 18
speed shows
and the
overtookmotorway
often cycle
(marked for
with the swift
green driving
arrows).
higher speed and overtook often (marked with green arrows). style. The AV drove at a
higher speed and overtook often (marked with green arrows).

Figure 18. Motorway cycle for the swift driving style.

Figure 18. Motorway cycle for the swift driving style.
Several attributes of the cycles were calculated and are listed in Table 7 to compare
Severalstyles
Several
the driving attributes
attributes of
ofthe
thecycles
comprehensively:cycleswere
werecalculated
calculatedandandareare
listed in in
listed Table 7 to7compare
Table the
to compare
driving styles comprehensively:
•the driving
𝑇—the styles comprehensively:
duration of the driving cycle,
•• 𝑣̅𝑇—the
T—the
—the averagedurationspeed
of theduring
drivingthe cycle,
driving cycle,
• • 𝑣𝑣̅ —the
v—the average speed during
—the highest speed during the driving cycle,
cycle,cycle,
the driving
,
••• 𝑎𝑣ego,max
v , —the
—the
—the
RMS highest
highest speed
valuespeed during
during the
of acceleration the driving
driving
during cycle,
thecycle,
driving cycle,
• • a
𝑗𝑎RMS—the —the
—theRMS RMS value
RMSvalue
valueof of acceleration
ofthe
acceleration
jerk during during
during the driving
cycle,cycle,
the driving
the driving cycle,
•• 1j
𝑗RMS —the
—the RMS
RMS value
value of
of the
the jerk
jerk during
during the
the driving
driving cycle,
cycle,
• 1𝑇𝑇𝐶
—the mean of the reciprocal of TTC during the driving cycle,
•• 1TTC —the
—the mean
mean of of
thethe
reciprocal
reciprocal of of
TTC TTCduring
during the driving cycle,
• 𝑁 𝑇𝑇𝐶 —the number of vehicles overtaken during thethe driving
driving cycle,
cycle (if the ego vehicle is
•• N —the
𝑁 —the number
ovt number of vehicles
of the
vehicles overtaken
overtaken during
during the driving cycle
the driving cycle (if (if the
the ego
ego vehicle
vehicle is
is
overtaken by traffic, number is counted as negative).
overtaken by traffic, the number is counted as negative).
• 𝑏overtaken by traffic, the number is counted as negative).
, —the consumption of the drive cycle (in LDS of Tesla Model 3 with rear-
•• wheel
b100km,el
𝑏 ,
—the
—the
drive
consumption
consumptionofofthe
[53]) thedrive
drivecycle (in(in
cycle LDSLDSof Tesla Model
of Tesla 3 with
Model 3 rear-wheel
with rear-
drive
wheel [53])
drive [53])
As expected, the comfortable driving style had the lowest 𝑎 and 𝑗 . The safe
As style
expected, thelowest 1
comfortable driving style had the lowest 𝑎 and 𝑗 . The safe
driving had the
1 𝑇𝑇𝐶 and the swift driving style had the shortest 𝑇 and the
driving style
highest 𝑣̅ , 𝑣 had
,
the lowest
and 𝑁 . The and the swift
𝑇𝑇𝐶generated driving
driving style
cycles hadable
were the to
shortest 𝑇 and the
demonstrate the
highest 𝑣̅ , 𝑣
characteristics of and 𝑁 . The generated driving cycles were able to demonstrate the
, the different driving styles, thus meeting the objective of the AVDC Tool.
characteristics of the different driving styles, thus meeting the objective of the AVDC Tool.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108 21 of 26

As expected, the comfortable driving style had the lowest aRMS and jRMS . The safe
1
driving style had the lowest TTC and the swift driving style had the shortest T and the
highest v, vego,max and Novt . The generated driving cycles were able to demonstrate the
characteristics of the different driving styles, thus meeting the objective of the AVDC Tool.

Table 7. Evaluation attributes of the cycles with different driving styles.

¯ 1
Road Driving T v vego,max aRMS jRMS TTC
Novt b100km,el
Category Style s km/h km/h m/s2 m/s3 1/s - kWh/100 km
original 986 17.8 57.7 0.80 0.95 / / 14.56
comfortable 998 17.5 40.0 0.55 0.44 0.038 −1 11.84
urban
safe 1006 17.3 40.0 0.68 0.78 0.013 −2 12.55
swift 986 17.8 50.0 0.75 0.86 0.084 0 13.97
original 1076 57.8 111.5 0.64 0.66 / / 15.61
comfortable 1099 56.6 80.1 0.47 0.25 0.015 −2 14.42
rural
safe 1108 56.1 80.1 0.56 0.46 0.006 −3 14.71
swift 986 63.0 105.0 0.75 1.16 0.053 9 17.20
original 1063 100.1 150.4 0.56 0.66 / / 24.44
comfortable 1195 89.0 104.1 0.39 0.25 0.007 −13 20.13
motorway
safe 1194 89.0 104.1 0.47 0.40 0.003 −13 20.28
swift 1023 103.9 144.3 0.66 0.63 0.025 4 21.16

5. Discussion
We built the AVDC Tool for AV development, in which context driving style should be
considered as one characteristic of an AV, and different customers prefer different driving
styles [53,59]. The tool can be used to generate driving cycles that correspond to a specific
driving style. When an AV is developed for a specific user group, the AV should run
according to the driving style that the group prefers. The corresponding driving cycles
could be generated using the tool and used to calculate the energy consumption for the
chosen driving style. In addition, the required driving power and force can be calculated
during the cycles. This will help the engineers to determine the powertrain specifications.
The service life of the components can also be estimated using the generated cycles.
The tool contains three main modules—driving style, driving algorithm, and driving
scenario. Well-developed algorithms for automated driving have been implemented in
the tool. Driving style has been divided into four aspects—comfort, safety, swiftness, and
economy. With reference to previous studies, the indicators for each aspect were selected
and then scaled into unified ratings from 5 to 10 using driving data or simulation results.
With these evaluation criteria, each journey was evaluated according to the four aspects
of driving style. The driving scenario was modelled as a traffic flow on a straight road.
The investigated AV drove in the flow and decided for itself which behavior to perform. It
could both overtake other vehicles and be overtaken by other vehicles. Such a standardized
scenario provided good comparability between different styles.
So far, the tool has been developed in a merely simulative environment, and this
methodology has not yet been validated with experiments. The indicators for evaluating
driving styles were developed with the help of previous publications. It has not been vali-
dated whether the evaluation of comfort and safety correspond to the subjective perception
of users. Also, the generated driving cycles have not been tested with real vehicles, so it
remains uncertain whether they will meet expectations.
The AV has been modelled with a simple ACC system and overtake logic, which
may be outdated when compared to state-of-the-art research on autonomous driving. The
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108 22 of 26

perception of the AV has also been simplified. In further research, the AVDC Tool could be
combined with more advanced autonomous driving algorithms.
In this research, we developed the tool for the conditions in Germany. However, the
driving conditions are adjustable in the tool, so they can be adapted for other countries or
areas as well. The driving scenario defined by the author was simplified and is different to
real driving scenarios. In the simulated scenario, the AV drives on a straight road without
curves, traffic lights, road junctions, or other elements. Whether these simplifications are
appropriate and how much influence they have was not investigated in this context.
As driving cycles for AVs have been little investigated in previous studies, we intend
to develop an innovative methodology for doing so. Further research should improve the
different modules of the tool in order to achieve more detailed and more accurate results.

6. Conclusions
We have developed the AVDC Tool, which is capable of generating driving cycles for
specific AV driving styles. The driving style is defined by way of four aspects—comfort,
safety, swiftness, and economy. The first three are input as ratings from 5 to 10 in the
tool, while the economy will be optimized. The investigated ego AV drives on a straight
road together with traffic vehicles, which run according to the existing driving cycles. The
control parameters for the AV are determined by the input driving style. The speed profile
of the ego vehicle is recorded as the generated cycle.
This paper focuses on a topic that has been rarely investigated. We have developed a
new methodology for generating driving cycles according to AV driving style. Therefore,
the main significance of this paper is to propose a methodology for generating AV driving
cycles.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, X.D. and F.S.; methodology, X.D. and F.S.; software, X.D.;
investigation, X.D.; writing—original draft preparation, X.D.; writing—review and editing, F.S. and
A.K.; visualization, X.D.; supervision, F.S.; funding acquisition, F.S. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The research of F.S. and A.K. was accomplished within the project “UNICARagil” (FKZ
16EMO0288). We acknowledge the financial support for the project from the Federal Ministry of
Education and Research of Germany (BMBF).
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available in [Link]
/TUMFTM/AV_Driving_Cycles (accessed on 9 April 2022).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108 23 of 26

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 of 27

Appendix A. Response Models of the Parameters

6.5

7.5

8.5
10

10
6

8
1
t_set
1 23
0.5
P_a
1.5
2
0.8
C_brk
1 1.21.4
0.05
0.1 0.15
P_v
0.2 0.8
C_vset
2 1 1.2
1
a_max
4
2
43
j_max
6 8
10
10
v_ovt,tol
20 40 30

Appendix B. GUI of the AVDC Tool

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 108 24 of 26

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 of 27

Appendix B. GUI of the AVDC Tool

Cycle 1 Cycle 4
60 60

50 50

40 40

Speed/(km/h)
30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Time /s Time /s
Cycle 2 Cycle 5

Speed/(km/h)
Cycle 3 Cycle 6

Speed/(km/h)

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