ECE 2101 ENGINEERING DRAWING II

Prerequisites
ECE 1201 Engineering Drawing I

Purpose of the course

The purpose of the course is to introduce students to the basics of engineering drawing and
graphic communication

Expected Learning Outcomes of the Course

By the end of this course, the learner should be able to;

1. Develop interpenetration curves for connection of various shapes
2. Develop plane surfaces for various three-dimensional shapes
3. Develop orthographic sections from pictorial and orthographic drawings
4. Detail timber structures and connections
5. Detail steel structures, steel members and connections
6. Prepare basic road design drawings
7. Prepare water pipe network and profile drawings
Course Content

Solid geometrical constructions: interpenetrations and development of surfaces.

Orthographic drawings: sectioning and dimensioning. Timber structures: Detailing of
timber structures and connections, roofing in timber. Detailing of steel structures, roof
trusses, stanchions and connections, drawing presentation. Civil engineering design
presentation: roads, cross-sections, longitudinal profiles, kerb details, gully-pots and road
drainage structures, drawing presentation. Water supply and waste water disposal: pipeline
profile, pipe network details, fitting details, connections and intake works, drawing
presentation.

Laboratory/Practical Exercises

-Developing various relevant types of drawings

Mode of Delivery

Lectures, Case Studies, Seminars, Presentations and Discussions.

Course assessment

Continuous Assessment Tests – 50%

End of semester Examinations –50%
Total 100%

Course Reference Textbooks

Course Textbook

1
 1. Cecil H. Jensen, Jay D. Helsel, Dennis Short, (2007). Engineering Drawing and
Design
2. Dhananjay Jolhe, (2007). Engineering Drawing: With An Introduction To Cad
McGrawHill
Other Reference Texts

1. Madsen, D. A, (2006). Engineering Drawing and Design. Delmar Cengage

Learning
2. Goetsch D. E, Chalk W.S, Rickman R.L, Nelson J.A, (2008). Technical Drawing
and Engineering Communication. Delmar Cengage Learning
3. Jude D.V, (1987). Civil Engineering Drawing. Blackwell Science Ltd; 2nd edition
4. Madsen D. A, Shumaker T. M, David P. Madsen D. P, (2009). Civil Drafting
Technology. Prentice Hall; 7 edition
5. Singh G., (2005), Civil engineering drawing, Standard Publishers Distributors
Journals

1. Journal of Graphic Engineering and Design, ISSN: 2217-9860

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INTERPENETRATION OF SOLIDS

Intersection of solids

Whenever two or more solids combine, then their surfaces intersect. A definite curve is seen at
their intersection which remains common to both solids. This curve is called the curve of
intersection (COI).

When two objects are to be joined together, maximum surface contact between them is a basic
requirement for the strongest joint.

Lines of intersection are a common feature in engineering applications or products. Figure 1 shows
few examples of intersection lines frequently observed in chemical plants, domestic appliances,
pipe joints, etc. Curves of intersections are important from the point of view of production of
components for engineering applications.

Figure 1. photographs of engineering components showing cures of intersection.

Cases of Intersection
The cases of intersection depend on the type of intersecting solids and the manner in which they
intersect. Two intersecting solids may be of the same type (e.g., prism and prism) or of different
types (e.g., prism and pyramid). The possible combinations are shown in table 1.:

Table 1. Different cases of intersection

3
The two solids may intersect in different ways. The axes of the solids may be parallel, inclined or
perpendicular to each other. The axes may be intersecting, offset or coinciding. Therefore, the
following sub-cases exist:

i. Axes perpendicular and intersecting

ii. Axes perpendicular and offset
iii. Axes inclined and intersecting
iv. Axes inclined and offset
v. Axes parallel and coinciding
vi. Axes parallel and offset

The type of intersection created depends on the types of geometric forms, which can be two- or
three- dimensional. Intersections must be represented on multiview drawings correctly and
clearly. For example, when a conical and a cylindrical shape intersect, the type of intersection that
occurs depends on their sizes and on the angle of intersection relative to their axes as well as
relative position of their axes.

The line of intersection is determined using auxiliary views and cutting planes.
Methods – (1) Line and (2) Cutting-plane methods

Line method:A number of lines are drawn on the lateral surface of one of the solids and in the
region of the line of intersection. Points of intersection of these lines with the surface of the other
solid are then located. These points will lie on the required line of intersection. They are more
easily located from the view in which the lateral surface of the second solid appears edgewise (i.e.
as a line). The curve drawn through these points will be the line of intersection.

Cutting-plane method: The two solids are assumed to be cut by a series of cutting planes. The
cutting planes may be vertical (i.e. perpendicular to the H.P.), edgewise (i.e. perpendicular to the
V.P.) or oblique. The cutting planes are so selected as to cut the surface of one of the solids in
straight lines and that of the other in straight lines or circles.

4
Intersection of two prisms

Prisms have plane surfaces as their faces. The line of intersection between two plane surfaces is
obtained by locating the positions of points at which the edges of one surface intersect the other
surface and then joining the points by a straight line. These points are called vertices. The line of
intersection between two prisms is therefore a closed figure composed of a number of such lines
meeting at the vertices. The method of obtaining intersection lines are shown by means of
problem.

Problem 1. A vertical square prism, base 50 mm side, is completely penetrated by a horizontal

square prism, base 35 mm side, so that their axes intersect. The axis of the horizontal prism is
parallel to the prism, while the faces of the two prisms are equally inclined to the prism. Draw the
projections of the solids, showing lines of intersection. (Assume suitable lengths for the prisms.)
Solution
The intersection obtained is shown in figure 2. Draw the projections of the prisms in the required
position. The faces of the vertical prism are seen as lines in the top view. The points of intersection
in this view can be located by the following method.
Lines 1-1 and 3-3 intersect the edge of the vertical prism at points p1 and p3 (coinciding
with a). Lines 2-2 and 4-4 intersect the faces at p2 and p4 respectively. The exact positions of
these points along the length of the prism may now be determined by projecting them on
corresponding lines in the front view. For example, p2 is projected to p2' on the line 2'2'. Note
that p4' coincides with p2'. Similarly other points are obtained. Draw lines p1’p2' and p2‘p3'. Lines
p1‘p4' and p3‘p4' coincide with the front lines. These lines show the line of intersection. Lines q1'q2'
and q2‘q3' on the other side are obtained in the same manner. Note that the lines for the hidden
portion of the edges are shown as dashed lines. The green lines in the figure represents
construction lines. The portions p1’p3' and q1’q3' of vertical edges a'a' and c'c' do not exist and
hence, must be removed or kept fainter.

Figure 2. Prism-prism intersection.

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Intersection of Cylinder and Cylinder

The line of intersection between cylinders will be curved since the lateral surfaces of cylinders are
curved. Points on the intersection line can be located by either line method or cutting plane
method. For plotting an accurate curve, the points at which the curve changes direction must also
be located. These points lie on the outermost or extreme lines of each cylinder pierce the surface
of the other cylinder. For obtaining the intersection of cylinder and cylinder, cutting plane method
is more useful. In this technique, a series of horizontal cutting planes are assumed to be passing
through the lines of the horizontal cylinder and these planes cuts both cylinders as shown in figure
3. After each sectioning, the top view of the section of the horizontal cylinder will be a rectangle
with its width depending on the position of the cutting plane, where as the top view of the vertical
cylinder will be a circle with diameter equal the diameter of the vertical cylinder. The points at
which the sides of the rectangles intersect the circle will lie on the curve of intersection. The
procedure is illustrated through problem 2.

Figure 3. Cylinder-cylinder intersection

Problem 2
A vertical cylinder of 80 mm diameter is completely penetrated by another cylinder of 60 mm
diameter, their axes bisecting each other at right angles. Draw their projections showing curves of
penetration, assuming the axis of the penetrating cylinder to be parallel to the VP.
Solution:
The solution is shown in figure 3. The Front view, top view and side view of the two cylinders are
drawn with out the intersection lines. Divide the circumference of the circle in the side view in to
12 equal parts. Draw horizontal projectors from these points on to the front view. Project the
same points from the side view on to the top view and obtain lines 1-1, 2-2, 3-3 , etc. Let us
now consider a horizontal section plane passing through points 2-2 and 12-12 (shown in figure
3).

In the front view, it will be seen as a line coinciding with line 2’ 2'. In the top view, the section of
the horizontal cylinder will be a rectangle of width (i.e. the line 2-12). The section of the vertical
cylinder will be a circle. Points p2 and p12 at which the sides (2-2 and 12-12) of the rectangle cuts
the circle will lie on the curve of intersection. This point is first obtained in the top view by the
intersecting point of line 12-12 and 2-2 with the circle. Vertical projector lines are drawn from

6
these points to the front view so as to intersect with the horizontal projectors drawn through
points 2 and 12 in the side view to obtain P2’ and P12’ in the front view.
Other cutting planes are also assumed passing through 3-11, 4-10, etc and the procedure repeated
to obtain other points p3’, p4’, p5’, etc. Similar procedure is adopted to obtain points q1’, q2’, etc
on the right hand side. Since the axis to the two cylinders intersect, points p2’ and p12’ will
coincide and hence cannot be shown in the figure.

Figure 3. Cylinder-cylinder intersection projection

Intersection of Cone and Cylinder

Figure 5 illustrate the cutting plane method for obtaining the curve of intersection. In this the top
view of the cone after sectioning will be a circle and that of the cylinder will be a rectangle with
width W. The diameter of the circle and the width of the rectangle in the top view will depend
on the height of the section from the cone base. At each height, the intersection points P2, P3,
P4 … are obtained and finally these points are joined by a smooth curve in the front view.

7
 Figure 5 illustrating the cutting plane method for obtaining the curve of intersection.

Problem 3
Example - A vertical cone, diameter of base 75 mm and axis 100 mm long, is completely penetrated
by a cylinder of 45 mm diameter. The axis of the cylinder is parallel to HP and VP and intersects
the axis of the cone at a point 22 mm above the base. Draw the projections of the solids showing
curves of intersection.

Solution
Draw lines dividing the surface of the cylinder into twelve equal parts.
Assume a horizontal cutting plane passing through say, point 2. The section of the cylinder will be
a rectangle of width w (i.e. the line 2-12), while that of the cone will be a circle of diameter ee.
These two sections intersect at points p2 and p12. These sections are clearly indicated in the top
view by the rectangle 2-2-12-12 and the circle of diameter ee. In the front view, the cutting plane
is seen as a line coinciding with 2' 2’. Points p2 and p12 when projected on the line 2' 2’ (with which
the line 12'-12' coincides) will give a point p2' (with which p12' will coincide). Then p2' and p12' are
the points on the curve of intersection. To obtain the points systematically, draw circles with centre
0 and diameters dd, ee, ff,etc. cutting lines through 1, 2 and 12, 3 and 11 etc. at points p1, p2 and
p12, p3 and pll etc . Project these points to the corresponding lines in the front view.

8
• The
drawing
shows the
part Plan
and part
Front
Elevation of
an
interpenetr
ation
between
two

9
 9
• Divide the 10/8
Elevation 11/7
12/6
and Plan 1/5
into 2/4
3
• Draw
generators
from these 1 12
10/2 11/
points on 9/3
• Project the 8/4
generators 7/5
6
on the
Elevation

10
 9
• Find the 10/8
position of 11/7
12/6
• Project the 1/5
2/4
12 points 3
from the
• Number
9 1011 12 1 2
8 7 6 5 43
the points 1 12
10/2 11/
9/3
8/4
7/5
6

9
• Project the 10/8
points 11/7
12/6
from the 1/5
curve of 2/4
3
• Mark
where
9 1011 12 1 2
8 7 6 5 43
these lines 1 12
10/2 11/
9/3
cross the 8/4
7/5
• Draw a 6
smooth
curve

11
 9
• Project the 10/8
points 11/7
12/6
where the 1/5
generators 2/4
3

• Where
they cross 9 1011 12 1 2
8 7 6 5 43 1 12
10/2 11/
the 9/3
correspon 8/4
7/5
• Do the 6
same
thing to

9
• To finish 10/8
the 11/7
12/6
drawing 1/5
each of 2/4
3
the
outlines
9 1011 12 1 2
8 7 6 5 43
should be 1 12
10/2 11/
9/3
darkened.
8/4
• Make sure
7/5
that any 6
hidden
lines are

12
• The final
drawing
should
look like
this.
• The
constructi
on lines
have been
removed
to make
the

13
DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES
Introduction
A layout of the complete surface of a three dimensional object on a plane is called the
development of the surface or flat pattern of the object. The development of surfaces is very
important in the fabrication of articles made of sheet metal. The objects such as containers,
boxes, boilers, hoppers, vessels, funnels, trays etc., are made of sheet metal by using the
principle of development of surfaces.

Figure 1. Typical development of the surface of a cuboid.

Types of development
There are three major types of development followed by industries. Examples are shown in
figure 2.

1. Parallel line development: In this parallel lines are used to construct the expanded
pattern of each three-dimensional shape. The method divides the surface into a series
of parallel lines to determine the shape of a pattern.
2. Radial line development: In this, lines radiating from a central point to construct the
expanded pattern of each three-dimensional shape are used. These shapes each form
part of a cone and lines radiating from the vertex of the cone generate the expanded
pattern of the curved surface as shown in the following explorations.
3. Triangulation method: This is generally used for polyhedron, single curved surfaces,
and warped surfaces.
4. Approximate development: In this, the shapes obtained are only approximate. After
joining, the part is stretched or distorted to obtain the final shape

14
Figure 2. Typical examples of the various types of development.

A true development is one in which no stretching or distortion of the surfaces occurs and every
surface of the development is the same size and shape as the corresponding surface on the 3-D
object. e.g. polyhedrons and single curved surfaces (See Prism, cone, etc above).

An approximate development is one in which stretching or distortion occurs in the process of

creating the development. The resulting flat surfaces are not the same size and shape as the
corresponding surfaces on the 3-D object. Wrapped surfaces do not produce true developments,
because pairs of consecutive straight-line elements do not form a plane. Also double-curved
surfaces, such as a sphere do not produce true developments, because they do not contain any
straight lines.

15
Development of a Prism
To draw the development of a square prism of side of base 30mm and height 50mm.

Procedure

1. Assume the prism is resting on its base on H.P. with an edge of the base parallel to V.P
and draw the orthographic views of the square prism.
2. To start the development, draw the stretch-out line in the front view, along the base of
the prism and equal in length to the perimeter of the prism. Draw another line in the
front view along the top of the prism and equal in length to the stretch-out line. Draw
vertical lines between the ends of the two lines, to create the rectangular pattern of the
prism.
3. Locate the fold line on the pattern by transferring distances along the stretch-out line in
length to the sides of the prism, 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, 4-1. Draw thin, dashed vertical lines from
points 2, 3, and 4 to represent the fold lines. Add the bottom and top surfaces of the
prism to the development, taking measurements from the top view. Add the seam to
one end of the development and the bottom and top.

Development of a Cylinder
To draw the development of a cylinder of base diameter 30mm and height 50mm

16
Procedure

1. Draw the orthographic views of the cylinder.

2. To start the development, draw the stretch-out line in the elevation, along the base of
the cylinder and equal in length to the circumference of the base. Draw another line in
the front view along the top of the prism and equal in length to the stretch-out
line. Draw vertical lines between the ends of the two lines, to create the rectangular
pattern of the prism.
3. Draw the top and bottom covers using the base diameter.

Development of a Pyramid
To draw the development of a square pyramid with side of base of 30mm and height 60mm

Procedure

1. Draw the views of the pyramid assuming that it is resting on H.P and with an edge of
the base parallel to V.P
2. Determine the true length o-a of the slant edge.
Note:
In the orientation given for the solid, all the slant edges are inclined to both H.P and
V.P. Hence, neither the front view nor the top view provides the true length of the slant
edge. To determine the true length of the slant edge, say OA, rotate Oa in plan till it is
parallel to xy to the position Oal. Through al draw a projector to meet the line xy at
a1'. Then O’a1’ all represents the true length of the slant edge OA. This method of
determining the true length is also known as rotation method.
3. With centre O and radius O’a1’, draw an arc.

17
 4. Starting from A along the arc, mark the edges of the base i.e. AB, BC, CD and DA.
5. Join 0 to A, B, C, etc., representing the lines of folding and thus completing the
development.

Development of a Pentagonal Pyramid

To draw the development of a pentagonal pyramid with side of base of 25mm and height 60mm

1. Draw the orthgraphic views ofthe pyramid ABCDE with its base on H.P and axis parallel
to V.P.
2. With centre 0 of the pyramid and radius equal to the true length of the slant edge draw an
arc.
3. Mark off the edges starting from A along the arc and join them to 0 representing the lines
of folding.
4. Add the base at a suitable location.

18
Development of a Cone
The development of the lateral surface of a cone is a sector of a circle. The radius and length
of the arc are equal to the slant height and circumference of the base of the cone respectively.
The included angle ofthe sector is given by (r / s) x 360°, where r is the radius of the base of
the cone and s is the true length.

Development of Surfaces for Truncated Solids

Development of a truncated prism

19
A rectangular prism rests on its base 30x50mm and has a height of 60mm. It is truncated by an
inclined plane that is perpendicular to the Vertical plane and slants at an angle of 45° to the
Horizontal plane. Draw the surface development of the truncated prism.

Step 1: Draw the stretch-out line in the front view, along the base of the prism and equal in length
to the perimeter of the prism.
Locate the fold lines on the pattern along the stretch-out line equal in length to the sides of the
prism, 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, and 4-1.
Draw perpendicular construction lines at each of these points.
Project the points 1, 2, 3, and 4 from the front view
Step 2: Darken lines 1-2-3 and 4-1. Construct the bottom and top, as shown and add the seam
to one end of the development and the top and bottom

Development of a truncated pentagonal prism

A Pentagonal prism of side of base 20 mm and height 50 mm stands vertically on its base with a
rectangular face perpendicular to V.P. A cutting plane perpendicular to V.P and inclined at 600 to the
axis passes through the edges of the top base of the prism. Develop the lower portion of the lateral
surface of the prism.

1. Draw the projections of the prism.

2. Draw the trace (V.T) of the cutting plane intersecting the edges at points 1,2,3, etc.
3. Draw the stretch-out AA and mark-off the sides of the base along this in succession i.e.,
AB, BC, CD, DE and EA.
4. Erect perpendiculars through A,B,C etc., and mark the edges AA1, BBI' equal to the
height of the prism.
5. Project the points 11,21,31etc., and obtain 1,2,3 etc., respectively on the corresponding
edges in the development.
6. Join the points 1,2,3 etc., by straight lines and darken the sides corresponding to the
truncated portion of the solid.

20
Note:

1. Generally, the opening is made along the shortest edge to save time and soldering.
2. Stretch-out line is drawn in-line with bottom base of the front view to save time in
drawing the development.

Development of a truncated right circular cylinder

Step1. The top view and front view of the cylinder is drawn. The stretch out line, is aligned with
the base in the F.V., is drawn with length equal to the circumference of the cylinder. Construct the
rectangle with the stretch out line as one length and height of the cylinder as the width.

Step2. The top circular view of the cylinder then divided into a number of equal parts . The
stretch-out line is also divided into 12 equal parts from which vertical lines 1, 2, 3, 4, …. 12 are
constructed. The intersection points in the T.V. are projected into the F.V. . Draw horizontal
projectors from points 1, 2, 3, …., 12 to intersect the vertical lines 1,2, 3, 4, …. 12 in the stretch
out line. , where the projected lines intersect the angled edge view of the truncated surface of
the cylinder. The intersections between these projections and the vertical lines constructed from
the stretch-out line are points along the curve representing the top line of the truncated cylinder.

21
Join the intersection points with a smooth curve to obtain the development of the lateral surface
of the cylinder.

Step 3. Draw the circle with diameter equal to the diameter of the cylinder at any point on the
base of the development to obtain the development of the base surface of the cylinder. Draw an
ellipse with the truncated length (length 1-7 in the step 2) as major diameter and diameter of the
cylinder as the minor diameter on the top part of the development to obtain the final development
of the surfaces of the truncated cylinder.

22
Dimensioning
Drawing of a component, in addition to providing complete shape description, must also
furnish information regarding the size description. These are provided through the distances
between the surfaces, location of holes, nature of surface finish, type of material, etc. The
expression of these features on a drawing, using lines, symbols, figures and notes is called
dimensioning.

Dimensioning consists of the following:

1. Dimension line- A thin, solid line that shows the extent and direction of a
dimension. Dimension lines are broken for insertion of the dimension numbers

 Should be placed at least 10 mm away from the outline and all

 other parallel dimensions should be at least 6 mm apart, or more, if space permits

2. Extension line – a thin, solid line perpendicular to a dimension line, indicating which
feature is associated with the dimension. There should be a visible gap of 1.5 mm between
the feature’s corners and the end of the extension line. Figure 5 shows extension lines.
Extension lines should be drawn as thin continuous lines. They should extend slightly
beyond the respective dimension line and should be drawn perpendicular to the feature
being dimensioned.

23
 Figure 5. showing extension lines

3. Leader line -A thin, solid line used to indicate the feature with which a dimension, note,
or symbol is associated. Generally this is a straight line drawn at an angle that is neither
horizontal nor vertical (Usually 30° to HP). Leader line is terminated with an arrow touching
the part or detail. On the end opposite the arrow, the leader line will have a short,
horizontal shoulder. Text is extended from this shoulder such that the text height is
centered with the shoulder line. Leader line should terminate,
(a) with a dot, if they end within the outline of an object (Fig.2.21a).
(b) with an arrow head, if they end on outside of the object (Fig.2.21b).
(c) without a dot or arrow head, if they end on dimension line (Fig.2.21c).

4. Arrows – Dimension lines should show distinct termination in the form of arrow heads
or oblique strokes or where applicable an origin indication (Fig.2.22). The arrow head
included angle is 15°. The origin indication is drawn as a small open circle of
approximately 3 mm in diameter. The proportion length-to depth 3 : 1 of arrow head is
shown in Fig.2.23.

Arrows should be 3 mm wide and should be 1/3rd as wide as they are long - symbols
placed at the end of dimension lines to show the limits of the dimension. Arrows are
uniform in size and style, regardless of the size of the drawing. Various types of arrows
used for dimensioning is shown in figure 6.

24
 Figure [Link] types of arrows used for dimensioning

If the space for dimensioning is insufficient, the arrow heads may be reversed and the adjacent
arrow heads may be replaced by a dot (Fig.2.19).

Types of Dimensioning Systems

Normally two types of dimensioning system exist. i.e. Aligned system and the unidirectional
system. These are shown in figure 3.

Method - 1 (Aligned method)

Dimensions should be placed parallel to and above their dimension lines and preferably at the
middle, and clear of the line. (Fig.2.25).

25
In the aligned system the dimensions are placed perpendicular to the dimension line in such a way
that it may be read from bottom edge or right hand edge of the drawing sheet. The horizontal and
inclined dimension can be read from the bottom where as all the vertical dimensions can be read
from the right hand side of the drawing sheet.

Method - 2 (uni-directional method)

Dimensions should be indicated so that they can be read from the bottom of the drawing only.
Non-horizontal dimension lines are interrupted, preferably in the middle for insertion ofthe
dimension (Fig. 3). In the unidirectional system, the dimensions are so oriented such that they
can be read from the bottom of the drawing.

Figure 3. The aligned system and unidirectional system of dimensioning.

Note: Horizontal dimensional lines are not broken to place the dimension in both cases.

Dimensioning of angles:

The normal conventions for dimensioning of angles are illustrated in figure 8.

Angular dimensions are oriented as shown in Fig.2.26b

26
Figure 8 conventions used for dimensioning angles.

Arrangement of dimensions

27
Identification of Shapes

The following indications are used with dimensions to show applicable shape identification
and to improve drawing interpretation. The diameter and square symbols may be omitted where
the shape is clearly indicated. The applicable indication (symbol) shall precede the value for
dimension (Fig. 2.28 to 2.32)

28
Basic principles of Dimensioning

1. Each feature is dimensioned and positioned only once, i.e., dimension marked in one
view need not be repeated in another view.
2. Dimension should be placed on the view where the shape is best seen (Fig.2.14)
3. Size dimensions – give the size of the component.
4. Every solid has three dimensions, each of the geometric shapes making up the object
must have its height, width, and depth indicated in the dimensioning.
5. All dimensional information necessary to describe a component clearly and completely
shall be written directly on a drawing.
6. As far as possible, dimensions should be expressed in one unit only preferably in
millimeters, without showing the unit symbol (mm).
7. As far as possible dimensions should be placed outside the view (Fig.2.15).
8. Dimensions should be taken from visible outlines rather than from hidden lines
(Fig.2.16)

29
30
31
Sections of Solids

Introduction
In engineering industries, when the internal structure of an object is complicated, it is very
difficult to visualize the object from its orthographic views since there will be several hidden
lines. In such case, the internal details are shown by sectional views. Sectional views are an
important aspect of design and documentation since it is used to improve clarity and reveal
interior features of parts.

Sectional drawings are multi-view technical drawings that contain special views of a part or
parts, which reveal interior features. A primary reason for creating a section view is the
elimination of hidden lines, so that a drawing can be more easily understood or
visualized. Traditional section views are based on the use of an imaginary cutting plane that
cuts through the object to reveal interior features

Types of Sections

(a) Full section view, where the section plane go completely through the object.
Example shown in figure 1.
(b) Half section view, where the section plane go half-way through the object.
Example shown in figure 2.
(c) Offset section, where the sectional plane bent through the features that are not
aligned. Example shown in figure 3.
(d) Broken-out section where the section go through part of the object . Example
shown in figure 4.
(e) Revolved sections

Figure 1. Illustrates a full Section view

32
 Figure 2. Illustrating a half section view

Figure 3. Illustrating an offset section

Figure 4. Illustrating a Broken-out Section

Figure 6 illustrates a full section view of an object. As shown in the correct drawing, the section
lined areas are bounded by visible lines, never by hidden lines, because the bounding lines are
visible in the section view Visible surfaces and edges that represent a change of planes behind

33
the cutting plane are drawn as lines in a section view. Figure 6 shows a section view for which
the cutting plane passes through the center of a counter bored hole. A line represents the change
of planes between the drilled and counter bored holes and is an example of a visible feature
that is behind the cutting plane.

Figure 6 Shows a correct and incorrect representation along with the multiview drawing

Visualization of Section Views

Figure 7 is multi-view drawing of a part that may be difficult to visualize in its 3-D form,
because of the many hidden lines.

34
Figure 7: A multiview drawing of an object

A section view is created by passing an imaginary cutting plane vertically through the center
of the part. Figure 8 is a 3D representation of the part after it is sectioned. The section view
more clearly shows the interior features of the part. In the left corner of the figure, the cutting
plane arrows, in the front view, point to the left, to represent the direction of sight for producing
a right side view in full section. The direction of the arrow can also be thought of as pointing
toward the half of the object being kept. The right half of the object is "removed" to reveal the
interior features of the part. The line of sight for the section view is perpendicular to the cut
surfaces, which means they are drawn true size and shape in the section view. Also, no hidden
lines are drawn and all visible surfaces and edges behind the cutting plane are drawn as object
lines. The corners of the section view are numbered as shown in the right hand figure so that
they can be compared with the orthographic section view.

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Figure 9 showing a full section and the physically sectioned plane of the object

Hatching

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On sections and sectional views solid area should be hatched to indicate this fact. Hatching is
drawn with a thin continuous line, equally spaced (preferably about 4mm apart, though never
less than 1mm) and preferably at an angle of 45 degrees. The type of section line used to
represent a surface varies according to the type of material. Symbols generally used for various
materials are shown in figure 15. However, the general purpose section line symbol used in
most section view drawings is that of cast iron. The specific type of steel to be used will be
indicated in the title block or parts list. Occasionally, with assembly section views, material
symbols are used to identify different parts of the assembly.

i. Hatching a single object

When hatching an object, but the object has areas that are separated, all areas of the object
should be hatched in the same direction and with the same spacing.

ii. Hatching Adjacent objects

When hatching assembled parts, the direction of the hatching should ideally be reversed on
adjacent parts. If more than two parts are adjacent, then the hatching should be staggered to
emphasise the fact that these parts are separate.

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Hatching lines should not run parallel or perpendicular to the visible outline. If the visible
outline to be sectioned is drawn at 45°, the section lines are drawn at a different angle, such as
30° as shown in figure 17.

Figure 17: Direction of section lines with respect to the visible outline of the object.

Avoid placing dimensions or notes within the section lined areas. If the dimension or note must
be placed within the sectioned area, omit the section lines in the area of the note as shown in
figure 17.

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Figure 18 Placement of dimensions or notes within the section lines.

An outline section view is created by drawing partial section outlines adjacent to all object lines
in the section view as shown in figure 19. For large parts, outline sectioning may be used to
save time.

Figure19. An outline section view.

Very thin parts such as washers and gaskets are not easily represented with section lines, so
conventional practice calls for representing the thin part in solid black. Figure 20 shows the
section of a gasket drawn as solid black.

Figure 20: Representation of section view of a very thin part (e.g. gasket)

Cutting Plane Lines:

The cutting plane line show the exact line along which the cutting plane passes through the
object. This represents the edge view of the cutting plane and are drawn in the view(s) adjacent
to the section view. This is represented in figure 11. In the figure the cutting plane line is drawn
in the top view, which is adjacent to the sectioned front view.

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 Figure 11 showing the representation of a cutting plane line

Cutting plane lines are thick (0.7 mm) dashed lines, that extend past the edge of the object 6
mm and have line segments at each end drawn at 90 degrees and terminated with arrows. The
arrows represent the direction of the line of sight for the section view and they point away from
the sectioned view. Two types of lines are acceptable for cutting plane lines in multi-view
drawings. The normal representation of cutting plane lines is shown in figure 12. Line B-B is
composed of alternating long and two short dashes, which is one of the two
standard methods. The length of the long dashes varies according to the size of the drawing,
and is approximately 20 to 40 mm. For a very large section view drawing, the long dashes are
made very long to save drawing time. The short dashes are approximately 3 mm long. The
open space between the lines is approximately 1.5 mm. Capital letters are placed at each end
of the cutting plane line, for clarity or when more than one cutting plane is used on a
drawing. The second method used for cutting plane lines is shown by line C-C, which is
composed of equal-length dashed lines. Each dash is approximately 6 mm long, with a 1.5 mm
space between.

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 Figure 12 Normal representation of cutting plane lines.

Ribs in Sections

To avoid a false impression of thickness and solidity, ribs, webs, gear teeth, and other similar
flat features are not sectioned, even though the cutting plane passes along the center plane of
the feature.

For example, in the figure below, the cutting plane A-A passes through the long dimension of
the vertical web, or rib, but as figure a shows, the web is not section lines. Such thin features
should not be section lined, even though the cutting plane passes through them. Figure b shows
an incorrect drawing.

Section of simple solids

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 The subsequent paragraphs explains the sections of simple solids when the section plane is
oriented differently with respect to the projection planes.

 Section of prisms:
 Section plane parallel to VP
 Section plane parallel to HP
 Section plane perpendicular to HP and inclined to VP
 Section plane perpendicular to VP and inclined to HP

Figure 6: Sectional view of a square prism sectioned by a plane parallel to VP.

Problem -1: A triangular prism, side of base 30 mm and axis 50 mm long is lying on the HP on
one of its rectangular faces with its axis inclined at 30° to the VP. It is cut by a horizontal section
plane at a distance of 12 mm above the ground. Draw its front view, side view and sectional top
view

Figure 7. Sectional view of the object in problem-1.

c. Section plane parallel to HP

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Problem-2: A pentagonal pyramid, side of base 30 mm and axis 65 mm long, has its base
horizontal and an edge of the base parallel to the VP. A horizontal section plane cuts it at a distance
of 25 mm above the base. Draw its front view and sectional top view.
Solution : Figure 8 shows the solution of the problem. The sectional view is obtained in the same
manner as in probel-1. Here the intersection the slant edges of the pyramid with the section plane
is projected on to the respective edges in the top view.

Figure 8. Sectional view for the problem-2.

Section plane Inclined to VP

Problem-3 A pentagonal pyramid has its base on the HP. Base of the pyramid is 30 mm in side,
axis 50 mm long. The edge of the base nearer to VP is parallel to it. A vertical section plane,
inclined at 45° to the VP, cuts the pyramid at a distance of 6 mm from the axis. Draw the top
view, sectional front view and the auxiliary front view on an AVP parallel to the section plane.
Solution:
The solution is shown in figure 9. The Front view and top view of the pyramid is first drawn. The
vertical section which is inclined at 45° to VP is shown by the line HT inclined at 45° to XY line.
Since the section plane passes through a point 6 mm from the axis of the pyramid, a circle of
radius 6 mm is drawn in the top view. The line HT is drawn such that it is tangent to this circle. The
sectional front view of the object is obtained by drawing vertical projectors and its intersection
with the respective slant edges in the front view. Since point 2 (in the top view) is in the line ob,
which is vertical, the projection of point 2’ is obtained in the following manner. With centre O and
radius o-2, draw an arc to intersect the line o-c at 21. Project point 21 in the top view to point 2’
in the Front view. Draw a horizontal projector from 2’ to intersect the line o’-b’ at 2’. The section
front view is shown by the hatched area in the front view.
The auxiliary front view is drawn to obtain the true shape of the section. This is obtained by the
auxiliary projection method shown in figure 9 .

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 Figure 9. Solution to problem – 3.

Problem 4 : A square prism of base side on 30 mm and axis length 60 mm is resting on HP on

one of its bases, with a base side inclined at 30° to VP. It is cut by a plane .inclined at, 1O° to.
HP and perpendicular to VP and is bisecting the axis of the prism. Draw its front view, sectional
top view and true shape of section.

Solution: Draw the projections of the prism in the given position. The top view is drawn and
the front view is projected.

To draw the cutting plane, front view and sectional top view
1. Draw the Vertical Trace (VT) of the cutting plane inclined at 400 to XY line and passing
through the midpoint of the axis.
2. As a result of cutting, longer edge a' p' is cut, the end a' has been removed and the new
corner l' is obtained.
3. Similarly 2' is obtained on longer edge b' q', 3' on c' r' and 4' on d's'.
4. Show the remaining portion in front view by drawing dark lines.
5. Project the new points 1',2',3' and 4' to get 1,2,3 and 4 in the top view of the prism,
which are coinciding with the bottom end ofthe longer edges p, q, r and s respectively.
6. Show the sectional top view or apparent section by joining 1, 2, 3 and 4 by drawing
hatching lines.

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To draw the' true shape of a section

1. Draw an auxiliary inclined plane parallel to the cutting plane and draw the new
reference line x1 y1 parallel to VT of the cutting plane at an arbitrary distance
2. Draw projectors passing through 1', 2', 3' and 4' perpendicular to x1 y1 line.
3. The distance of point 1 in top view from XY line is measured and marked from x1y1
in the projector passing through l' to get 11. This is repeated to get the other points 21, 31
and 41,
4. Join these points to get the true shape of section as shown by drawing the hatching lines.

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Timber Detailing additional notes…

Connectors
The most efficient way to facilitate transfer of forces across timber joints is by contact pressure.
In those cases connectors are only necessary to position the elements and not for load transfer.
However, that is not always possible; for example, the load transfer in truss joints have to be
taken care for by mechanical fasteners (or glued connections) for which mostly dowel type
fasteners are used. Figure 13.1 shows a wide variety of dowel type fasteners available in the
market nowadays.

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Timber-steel connection for roof batten

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