TOPIC: COMPUTER FILES

Concept of Computer Files

A computer file is a collection of data or information stored on a computer, identified by a

unique name called the filename. It can contain text, images, audio, video, programs, or other
data, and is stored on storage devices like hard drives, SSDs, USB drives, and CDs. Files allow
data to be saved, retrieved, modified, and shared easily in a computer system.

File Terminologies

1. Record: A record is a complete set of related data items or fields that describe a single
entity in a file or database. Example: In a file containing student information, one record
may contain all data about a student (e.g., name, age, class, and score).

2. Field: A field is a single piece of data within a record. It represents one attribute or item
of information. Example: In a student record, fields could be "Name", "Age", "Class", and
"Score".

3. Filename – The unique name given to a file for identification. File Extension – The suffix
at the end of a filename that indicates the file type (e.g., .docx, .jpg, .mp3).

4. File Type – Specifies the kind of data stored in the file (e.g., text file, audio file, image
file).

5. File Type – Specifies the kind of data stored in the file (e.g., text file, audio file, image
file).

6. File Size – The amount of digital space the file occupies, measured in bytes (KB, MB, GB).

7. File Path – The complete address or location of the file in a storage device (e.g.,
C:\Documents\School\[Link]).

8. Directory (or Folder) – A container used to organize and store files.

9. Sub-directory (or Sub-folder) – A folder inside another folder.

10. File Attribute – Properties of a file, such as read-only, hidden, system, and archive.

11. File Format – The structure in which data is stored in a file (e.g., PDF, MP4, TXT).

12. File Access – The way files are opened, read, written, or executed.

13. File Management – The process of organizing, storing, and maintaining files using file
systems and managers.

14. File Sharing – Making a file available to other users or devices over a network.
 15. File Compression – Reducing the file size to save space (e.g., ZIP, RAR files).

16. File Permissions – Rules that define who can read, write, or execute a file.

17. File Backup – A copy of a file made to prevent data loss.

18. File Recovery – The process of retrieving lost or corrupted files.

Data Item

What is a Data Item?

A data item is the smallest unit of data that represents a single piece of information in a
database, file, or record. It is a specific value or fact stored in a field of a record. A data item
takes three forms or types, namely numeric, alphabetic and alpha-numeric data item.

For example, in a student record:

Name: John (Here, "John" is a data item in the "Name" field).

Age: 15 (Here, "15" is a data item in the "Age" field).

Kinds Of Data Items

Data items can be classified based on how they are used and stored:

1. Elementary Data Item: This is a single, indivisible data item that cannot be broken down
into smaller parts.

Example: First Name: "James"

Age: "17"

Score: "95"

2. Group Data Item: A combination of related elementary data items grouped together as
one unit.

Example:

Full Name (can include First Name and Last Name).

Address (can include House Number, Street, City, State).

3. Key Data Item: A data item used to uniquely identify a record in a file or database. Also
called a Primary Key.

Example: Student ID: "STU1234" (uniquely identifies a student).

 4. Descriptor Data Item: A data item used to describe or provide information about other
data.

Example:

"Gender" field describing whether a person is male or female.

"Product Color" in a product database.

5. Control Data Item: Data items used to control the processing of other data.

Example:

Status: "Active" or "Inactive" (indicates if a record should be used or ignored).

Flags like "Paid/Unpaid".

File Organization

File organization refers to the logical relationships among the various records that constitute
the file, particularly with respect to the means of identification and access to any specific record.

File organization refers to the way data is arranged, stored, and accessed in a file on a storage
device such as a hard drive, SSD, or flash drive. It determines how records are structured within
the file and how efficiently they can be retrieved, updated, or deleted when needed.

In simple terms, file organization is about how data is stored and managed in a file to allow easy
and efficient use.

File Structure

File structure refers to the arrangement and format of data within a file. It defines how data is
organized, stored, and accessed inside the file, including how records and fields are laid out. In
simple terms, file structure determines how data is formatted and organized internally so that it
can be easily read, written, and managed by software applications.

File structure also refers to the format of the label and data blocks and of any logical record
control information. Files stored on magnetic media can be organised in a number of ways, just
as in a manual system.

Key Elements of file structure

1. Fields – Smallest units of data (e.g., name, age).

2. Records – A collection of related fields (e.g., student record with name, age, class).

3. Data Items – Individual pieces of information stored in fields.

 4. File Header (optional) – Contains metadata about the file, such as file type, version, and
creation date.

Types of file Structure

1. Flat File Structure – Data stored in a simple, plain-text or binary format without
relationships (e.g., CSV, TXT files).

2. Hierarchical File Structure – Data stored in a tree-like structure where records have
parent-child relationships.

3. Relational File Structure – Data stored in tables with rows and columns, used in
relational databases.

Factors Affecting The Method of File Organization

1. How the file is to be used;

2. How many records are processed each time the file is updated;

3. Whether individual records need to be quickly accessible.

Types/Methods of file organization

1. Sequential File Organization – Records are stored one after the other in a sequence.

2. Direct or Random File Organization – Records are stored in random order, but can be
accessed directly using an address or key.

3. Indexed Sequential File Organization – Combines sequential and direct access using an
index to speed up search.

Methods of Accessing Files

1. Sequential Access: In sequential access, data is read or written in order, from the
beginning of the file to the end.

Characteristics:

i. Records are accessed one after another.

ii. It is simple and efficient for processing large volumes of data.

iii. Best for files like logs, transaction files, and tapes.

Example: Reading a text file line by line.

Common Use: Payroll processing, reading video/audio files.

 2. Direct (or Random) Access: In direct access, data can be retrieved or modified directly
without reading previous records.

Characteristics:

i. Faster than sequential access for searching specific data.

ii. Uses an address or key to locate data.

iii. Suitable for databases and large files needing quick access.

Example: Accessing a customer's record in a bank database by account number.

Common Use: Database management systems, hard disk file retrieval.

3. Indexed Sequential Access: This method combines sequential and direct access by
using an index to locate data quickly and then accessing the data sequentially from that
point.

Characteristics:

i. Efficient for large files where both sequential processing and quick searching are
needed.

ii. Index contains references (pointers) to specific blocks or records.

Example: Searching a book index to find a page number and then reading from there.

Common Use: Employee records, library systems, inventory systems.

File Classification

File classification refers to the systematic arrangement of files into different categories or
groups based on their content, purpose, or method of use. It helps in organizing, storing,
retrieving, and managing files efficiently in a computer system or physical storage.

In simple terms, file classification is the way of grouping files so that they can be easily found
and used when needed.

Types of File Classification

Files can be classified in various ways depending on how they are used and what they contain.
The main types of file classification include:

1. Classification based on content

2. Classification based on usage

3. Classification based on file structure

 4. Classification based on accessibility

5. Classification based on permanence

Classification Based on Content

i. Data Files: Contain raw data or information, e.g., employee records, student lists.

ii. Program Files: Contain software or instructions for execution, e.g., .exe, .dll files.

iii. System Files: Essential files used by the operating system, e.g., boot files.

iv. Multimedia Files: Audio, video, image files, e.g., .mp3, .mp4, .jpg.

Classification Based on Usage

i. Master Files: Contain permanent data, e.g., customer database.

ii. Transaction Files: Store day-to-day activities or transactions, e.g., sales records.

iii. Temporary Files: Created for short-term use and often deleted after use, e.g., cache files.

iv. Backup Files: Copies of important data for recovery in case of data loss.

Classification Based on File Structure

i. Text Files: Store text data, readable by text editors, e.g., .txt, .csv.

ii. Binary Files: Store data in binary form, readable by specific applications, e.g., .bin, .dat.

Classification Based on Accessibility

i. Public Files: Accessible to everyone in the system or network.

ii. Private Files: Restricted files, accessible only to specific users.

Classification Based on Permanence

i. Permanent Files: Meant to be stored and used long-term, e.g., company records.

ii. Temporary Files: Used for specific tasks and deleted afterward, e.g., installation temp
files.

Criteria For Classifying Files

1. Nature of content in the file

2. File Organization method

3. File type or extension

 4. Purpose or function of the file

5. Structure or format

6. Accessibility or permission

7. Permanence or longevity

BASIC OPERATIONS OF COMPUTER FILES

File Operations: These deal with the physical movement of data in and out of files. User
programs effectively use file operations through appropriate programming language syntax The
File Management system manages the independent files and acts as the software interface
between the user programs and the file operations.

Operations

File operations include:

a) Insertion: Records must be inserted at the place dictated by the sequence of the keys.
As is obvious, direct insertions into the main data file would lead to frequent rebuilding
of the file. This problem could be mitigated by reserving Overflow areas in the file for
insertions. But this leads to wastage of space and also the overflow areas may also be
filled.

b) Deletion: Deletion is the reverse process of insertion. The space occupied by the record
should be free for use. Usually, deletion like insertion is not done immediately. The
concerned records written to a transaction file. At the time of merging the corresponding
data, record will be dropped from the primary data file.

c) Updation: Updation is a combination of insertion and deletions. The record with the new
values is inserted and the earlier version deleted. This is also done using transaction
files.

d) Retrieval: User programs will often retrieve data for viewing prior to making decisions,
therefore, it is vital that this data reflects the latest state of the data if the merging
activity has not yet taken place.

e) Open

f) Close

g) View

h) Copy

i) Creation
File Security

File security refers to the methods and measures used to protect computer files from
unauthorized access, alteration, theft, or destruction. It ensures that only authorized users can
access, modify, or delete files, thereby maintaining the confidentiality, integrity, and availability
of data stored in the files.

This is a feature of your file system which controls which users can access which files, and
places limitations on what users can do to files. For example, a file may be secured so that
everyone can view it but only certain specific people may change it, while another is secured so
that only the owner may view it. Folders may also be secured in this way. Users of Windows 95
or Windows 98 may not have encountered file security before, because the FAT file system does
not support file security. Users of Windows NT who have NTFS volumes may be familiar with
file security, because NTFS supports this feature.

Elements of file Security

File security involves several key elements that work together to ensure that files are protected
from unauthorized access, loss, or damage. These elements are designed to maintain the
confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data stored in files.

Below are the main elements of file security:

1. Authentication: Authentication is how the computer finds out who you are you tell it this
by providing a username and passwordwhen you begin using it, also known as "logging
on".

Techniques Used:

i. Usernames and passwords

ii. Biometric authentication (fingerprint, face recognition)

iii. Multi-factor authentication (MFA)

2. Permissions: Permissions are the properties of a file or folder that specify who can
access it (a list of users) and how (the type of access they are allowed). Normally, you
modify the permissions of a file or folder from its properties dialog in the Windows
Explorer.

3. Authorization: Authorization is a method of determining what actions an authenticated

user is allowed to perform on a file (e.g., read, write, delete).

Techniques Used:

i. File permission settings (read, write, execute)

 ii. Role-based access control (RBAC)

4. Non-repudiation: Ensures that a user cannot deny having performed a particular action
on a file (such as modifying or deleting it).

Techniques Used:

i. Digital signatures

ii. Audit trails and logging

5. Backup and Recovery: Protects files against accidental loss, corruption, or damage.
Allows recovery of files in case of hardware failure, attack, or accidental deletion.

Techniques Used:

i. Regular data backup

ii. Cloud storage

iii. Recovery software

6. Encryption: Converts file data into an unreadable format that can only be accessed with
the correct decryption key. Protects files from unauthorized viewing and tampering.

7. Audit and Monitoring: Keeping records of who accessed the files and what actions were
performed. Helps in detecting unauthorized access or suspicious activities.

Techniques Used:

i. File system audit logs

ii. Security information and event management (SIEM)

Access Check

Whenever a user accesses a file or folder, the file security feature kicks in. This is called an
access check. The file system considers the user's identity, and what kind of action the user is
performing, and consults the file's permissions. If the permissions do not allow the action, the
user gets an "Access Denied" error.

Effects Of File Insecurity

1. Data Loss

2. Overwriting

Methods Of File Security

 1. Use of back-ups

2. Use of Anti-virus

3. Password

4. Proper label of storage devices

Advantages Of Computerized Files

1. More secured

2. Fast to access

3. Less laborious

4. More reliable

5. Neatly modified.

Limitations Of Computerized Files

1. Irregular power supply

2. Expensive to set up.

Differences Between Computerized Files And Manual Files