HIGH-FREQUENCY RESPONSE—BJT

AMPLIFIER
At the high-frequency end, there are two factors that define the -3-dB cutoff point:
the network capacitance (parasitic and introduced) and the frequency dependence
of hfe (β).

Contents
HIGH-FREQUENCY RESPONSE—BJT AMPLIFIER........................................................................ 1
HYBRID 𝜋 MODEL........................................................................................................................... 1
High frequency analysis of CE amplifier ............................................................................................ 3
Equivalent circuit ................................................................................................................................ 4
Problem Sheet: High-Frequency Analysis of a CE Amplifier ............................................................ 9
Amplifier classes of operation (Class A, B, AB, C ) ........................................................................ 10
Why there are different classes of amplifier? ................................................................................... 12
Feedback Topologies and Stability Analysis. ................................................................................... 16
Effect of Negative Feedback ............................................................................................................. 17
Stability, Gain Margin, and Phase Margin ........................................................................................ 19
Calculations....................................................................................................................................... 19

HYBRID 𝜋 MODEL
Includes parameters that do not appear in the other two models primarily to provide a more
accurate model for high-frequency effects.
While simpler models (like the h-parameter model) work fine for audio frequencies, they fail
at radio frequencies (RF) because they ignore the internal capacitances of the transistor. The
Hybrid-𝜋 model fixes this by adding capacitors and specific resistors to represent the physical
structure of the silicon.

In Hybrid 𝜋 model a transistor is modelled as a combination of

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Resistors : rb, r𝜋, ru, ro.
Capacitors C𝜋, Cu
Current source βIb’ = gmV𝜋 for input current Ib

1. The Resistive Components (The "Real" Losses)

𝑟𝑏 (Base Spreading Resistance)
• Reason: The base region of a transistor is extremely thin and lightly doped. This
means it has a relatively high physical resistance.
• Explanation: The external wire connects to the "Base contact," but the active part of
the transistor is deep inside the silicon. The current has to travel through the resistive
semiconductor material to get there.
• Value: Typically small (10Ω to 100Ω), but significant at high frequencies.
𝑟𝜋 (Base-Emitter Dynamic Resistance) 𝑟𝑏′ 𝑒
• Reason: This represents the resistance of the forward-biased Base-Emitter (B-E)
junction looking from the internal base.
• Explanation: It relates the input voltage (V𝜋) to the input current (Ib). It is the
resistance responsible for the finite input impedance of the transistor.
𝛽 𝑉
• Formula: 𝑟𝜋 = = 𝐼 𝑇 (where VT is thermal voltage).
𝑔
𝑚 𝐵
𝑟𝑜 (Output Resistance)
• Reason: This represents the Early Effect (Base-Width Modulation).
• Explanation: In a perfect transistor, Collector current 𝐼𝐶 ) is constant regardless of
Collector-Emitter voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸 ). In reality, increasing 𝑉𝐶𝐸 widens the depletion region,
effectively shortening the base width and slightly increasing 𝐼𝐶 . This imperfect
behavior is modeled as a resistor.
𝑉𝐴
• Formula: 𝑟𝑜 = (where VA is the Early Voltage).
𝐼𝐶
𝑟𝜇 (Feedback Resistance) 𝑟𝑏′ 𝑐
• Reason: This represents the resistance of the reverse-biased Base-Collector (B-C)
junction.
• Explanation: Since the B-C junction is reverse biased, this resistance is massive
(often > 5M𝛺). Ideally, it is infinite (an open circuit).
• Note: Because it is so large, it is often ignored (treated as open) in simplified hybrid-
pi models to make calculation easier.

2. The Capacitive Components (The High-Frequency Limits)

These are the most critical parts of the model. They explain why gain drops as frequency
increases.
𝐶𝜋 (Base-Emitter Capacitance) 𝐶𝑏′ 𝑒
• Reason: Represents the charge storage in the forward-biased B-E junction.
• Composition: It is the sum of two capacitances:
1. Diffusion Capacitance 𝐶𝐷 : Dominant. Caused by minority carriers
(electrons/holes) injected into the base region waiting to cross to the collector.
2. Transition Capacitance (𝐶𝑇 ): Small. Caused by the depletion region charge.
• Impact: This capacitor shunts the input signal at high frequencies, reducing the
voltage 𝑉𝜋 that actually controls the transistor.
𝐶𝜇 (Base-Collector Capacitance) 𝐶𝑏′ 𝑐
• Reason: Represents the junction capacitance of the reverse-biased B-C junction.

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 • Explanation: Even though no current flows through the B-C junction, the depletion
region acts like a dielectric between two conductive plates (Base and Collector),
forming a capacitor.
• Impact (The Miller Effect): Although 𝐶𝜇 is usually very small (a few pF), it connects
the Output (Collector) back to the Input (Base). This creates a negative feedback loop
that drastically reduces the bandwidth of the amplifier (Miller Effect).

3. The Current Source 𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝜋 or 𝛽𝐼𝑏′

• Reason: This represents the amplification action of the transistor.
• Explanation: It shows that the output current (I_c) is a controlled source.
o 𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝜋 form: This is the most common form. It states that the Collector current
is controlled by the voltage across the internal base-emitter junction 𝑉𝜋
o 𝛽𝐼𝑏′ form: This states that the Collector current is a multiple ($\beta$) of the
Base current.
𝑉𝜋 𝑉𝜋
• Equivalence: Both are mathematically identical because 𝐼𝑏′ = , so 𝛽𝐼𝑏′ = 𝛽 =
𝑟𝜋 𝑟
𝜋
𝑔𝑚 𝑉𝜋

Summary of Uses
1. Frequency Response Analysis:
It is the primary model used to calculate the bandwidth of an amplifier (Low cutoff and High
cutoff frequencies).
2. High-Frequency Design:
Used to determine the Unity Gain Bandwidth 𝑓𝑇 —the frequency at which the transistor
stops amplifying.
3. Miller Effect Calculation:
It allows engineers to calculate exactly how the Base-Collector capacitance 𝐶𝜇 will be
"magnified" by the gain, destroying high-frequency performance.
4. Noise Analysis:
The resistive components 𝑟𝑏 , 𝑟𝜋 are used to calculate the thermal noise generated by the
transistor in sensitive communication circuits.

High frequency analysis of CE amplifier

The Common Emitter (CE) configuration is the "Superstar" of amplifiers because it is the
only configuration that provides both Voltage Gain and Current Gain.
Because it boosts both voltage and current, it delivers the highest Power Gain of all three
configurations. This makes it the most useful for general-purpose amplification (like boosting
a weak microphone signal to a level that can drive a speaker).

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Equivalent circuit

Vs and Rs
Let us say we have our source as mic, Source Resistance Rs: 200𝛺 to 600𝛺 and Vs is 10mV.
For function generator based experiment we did in the lab it is 50𝛺 and input is 20 mV.

β is the dc current gain. The "DC" stands for Direct Current. This beta defines the ratio of the total Collector
𝐼
Current to the total Base Current at one specific, static moment (the Operating Point or Q-Point) 𝛽𝐷𝐶 = 𝐶
𝐼𝐵
(Where 𝐼𝐶 and 𝐼𝐵 are the constant biasing currents).
We use this value solely to design the Biasing Circuit—to ensure the transistor is turned "ON" to the right level
before we even apply a microphone or signal input.

The analysis is simplifies the high-frequency analysis by splitting the amplifier into two
separate "Low Pass Filters": the Input Network and the Output Network.
He uses the Thevenin Equivalent resistance and capacitance for each side to find two
separate cutoff frequencies
𝑓𝐻𝑖 and 𝑓𝐻𝑜 . The final bandwidth is determined by whichever one is lower (the "weakest
link").
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𝑓𝐻𝑖 =
2𝜋𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑖 𝐶𝑖
𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑖 = 𝑅𝑠 ∥ 𝑅1 ∥ 𝑅2 ∥ 𝑅𝑖
𝑅𝑖 = ℎ𝑖𝑒 or 𝛽𝑟𝑒

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 𝑉𝑇
𝑟𝑒 =
𝐼𝐸

 𝑉𝑇 (Thermal Voltage) ≈ 26mV at room temperature 25∘ C

 𝐼𝐸 (Emitter Current) ≈ 1mA
26mV
𝑟𝑒 = = 26𝛺
1mA

ℎ𝑖𝑒 ≈ 𝛽 × 𝑟𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛽 = 100 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒 = 26𝛺

ℎ𝑖𝑒 = 100 × 26𝛺 = 2600𝛺(2.6k𝛺)

For 𝑅1 = 47k𝛺, 𝑅2 = 10k𝛺

47 × 10
𝑅𝐵 = 47k ∣∣ 10k = ≈ 8.25k𝛺
47 + 10
𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅𝐵 ∣∣ ℎ𝑖𝑒 = 8.25k ∣∣ 2.6k
8.25 × 2.6 21.45
𝑅𝑖 = = ≈ 1.98k𝛺
8.25 + 2.6 10.85

𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑖 = 50𝛺 ∥ 1980𝛺

50 × 1980 99,000
𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑖 = = ≈ 48.77𝛺
50 + 1980 2,030

Because 𝑅𝑠 is so small compared to the others, 𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑖 is almost identical to 𝑅𝑠 . This is why the
source resistance controls your bandwidth!)

𝐶𝑖 Input capacitance

𝐶𝑖 = 𝐶𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙_𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐶𝜋 + 𝐶𝑀𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 + 𝐶𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝐶𝑖 = 𝐶𝑏𝑒 + (1 − 𝐴𝑣 )𝐶𝑏𝑐 + 𝐶𝑊𝑖

𝐶𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 <1pF for PCB and 5pF to 10pF for breadboard

𝐶𝑊𝑖 = 10pF 𝐶𝑏𝑒 = 40pF 𝐶𝑏𝑐 = 4pF for BC107 and breadboard wiring

𝐴𝑣 ≈ −𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿′ = −(0.038 × 3200) ≈ −120

𝑔𝑚 ≈ 38mA/V 𝑅𝐿′ ≈ 3.2k𝛺 𝑅𝐿′ = 𝑅𝐶 ∣∣ 𝑅𝐿

𝐶𝑀𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 = (1 − (−120)) × 4pF = 121 × 4pF = 484pF
𝐶𝑖 = 10pF + 40pF + 484pF = 534pF

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𝑓𝐻𝑖 =
2𝜋(48.8)(534 × 10−12 )
𝑓𝐻𝑖 ≈ 6.1MHz

The Parallel Feedback Components 𝑪𝝁 and 𝒓𝝁

Feedback Capacitance (𝐶𝜇 or 𝐶𝑏′ 𝑐 )

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This is the most critical high-frequency component. It is the capacitance of the reverse-biased
Base-Collector junction.
• What it does: It causes the Miller Effect. Because it connects Output to Input, it gets
multiplied by the Gain, creating a massive capacitance at the input.
• Datasheet Value: Look for 𝐶𝑜𝑏 (Output Capacitance, Common Base).
• Value for BC107: ≈ 4pF
o (Note: It varies with voltage. At 5V, it is roughly 3.5pF to 4.5pF).
𝒓𝝁 is very high in mega ohms and it is considered as open circuit.
Output Resistance 𝑟𝑜
This represents the Early Effect (the fact that collector current changes slightly as collector
voltage changes).
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𝑟𝑜 =
ℎ𝑜𝑒
ℎ𝑜𝑒 Output Admittance from the datasheet. For a BC107 at 1mA ℎ𝑜𝑒 = 30𝜇S

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𝑟𝑜 = ≈ 33k𝛺
30 × 10−6
𝐶𝑜 = 𝐶𝑐𝑒 + 𝐶𝑀𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 + 𝐶𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
1
𝐶0 = 𝐶𝑐𝑒 + (1 − ) 𝐶𝑏𝑐 + 𝐶𝑊𝑖
𝐴𝑣
𝐶0 = 𝐶𝑐𝑒 + (1)𝐶𝑏𝑐 + 𝐶𝑊𝑖
1
− 𝐴 is very small value.
𝑣
Or
𝐶0 = 𝐶𝑐𝑒 + (1)𝐶𝑏𝑐 + 𝐶𝑊𝑖𝑜

𝐶𝑜 = 1pF + 4pF + 5pF or 𝐶𝑜 = 10pF

𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑜 = 𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑅𝐿 ∥ 𝑟𝑜

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𝑓𝐻𝑜 =
2𝜋𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑜 𝐶𝑜
𝑅𝐶 and 𝑅𝐿 parallel
4.7 × 10 47
𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = = ≈ 3.20k𝛺
4.7 + 10 14.7

𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑜 = 3.20k𝛺 ∥ 33k𝛺

3.20 × 33 105.6
𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑜 = = ≈ 2.92k𝛺(2920𝛺)
3.20 + 33 36.2
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𝑓𝐻𝑜 =
2𝜋(2920)(10 × 10−12 )
𝑓𝐻𝑜 ≈ 5.46MHz
There fore the bandwidth which is smaller is Bandwidth = fH0

When to use this model?

For a standard BC107 based Common Emitter amplifier, the high-frequency model (Hybrid
𝜋) typically "kicks in" (becomes necessary) around 500 kHz to 1 MHz.

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Below this range (e.g., at 1 kHz or 20 kHz), you can ignore it. Above this range, if you don't
use the high-frequency model, your calculations will be wrong.
What happens at 500 KHz to 1 MHz?
 At Audio Frequencies (1 kHz):
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The reactance 𝑋𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 of these capacitors is huge (Mega-Ohms).
• Result: They act like Open Circuits. You can pretend they don't exist. The Standard h
parameter model works perfectly.
 At High Frequencies (> 500 kHz):
The reactance drops significantly.
• Result: They start acting like Resistors or Shorts. They begin to "steal" signal current
and shunt it to ground or feed it back (Miller Effect).
We say the model "kicks in" effectively at the Upper Cutoff Frequency (f_H). For a typical
BC107 Audio Amplifier, this usually happens around 300 kHz - 800 kHz, depending on your
gain.
Frequency What the Internal Capacitors do Which Model to use?
Range
20 Hz - 20 kHz Act as Open Circuits > 10M𝛺. h-parameter (Simple).
20 kHz - 200 Starting to conduct, but negligible effect. h-parameter is still
kHz fine.
> 500 kHz Reactance drops to ≈ 20k𝛺. Significant Hybrid 𝜋 (High Freq).
shunting.
> 5 MHz Reactance is very low. Major signal loss. Hybrid 𝜋 is
mandatory.
If you are designing an Audio Amp (20kHz), ignore the high-frequency model. If you are
designing a Radio Receiver (AM at 500kHz or FM at 100MHz), you absolutely need it.

Why frequency response?

To find bandwidth. Try of we could trade bandwidth for gain or vice versa.
Define Bandwidth
The bandwidth (BW) of a Common Emitter (CE) amplifier is the range of signal frequencies
over which the voltage gain remains high, specifically not falling below 70.7% (or -3dB) of
its maximum mid-band gain. It is defined as the difference between the upper (𝑓𝐻 or 𝑓2 ) and
lower (𝑓𝐿 or 𝑓1 ) cutoff frequencies, represented as
𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓𝐻 − 𝑓𝐿
Why – 3 dB?
-3dB is the value where amplifier is "useful" as it delivers at least half its maximum power.
Draw a typical frequency response curve of a CE amplifier

If you plot Gain (Y-axis) vs Frequency (X-axis), you get a curve with three distinct regions:

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 1. Low Frequency Region (Bass): Gain is low.
o Reason: The Coupling Capacitors 𝐶𝑖𝑛 , 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) and Bypass Capacitor 𝐶𝐸 ) act
like open circuits at low frequencies, blocking the signal or reducing gain.
2. Midband Region (The Flat Top): Gain is Maximum and Constant.
o Reason: The external capacitors are short circuits (letting signal through), and
the internal transistor capacitors are open circuits (not interfering yet). This is
where the amplifier is designed to work.
𝐴𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑑 (Midband Voltage Gain): This is the maximum voltage gain of the amplifier in that flat,
stable middle region.
−ℎ𝑓𝑒 𝑅𝐿′
𝐴𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑑 ≈
ℎ𝑖𝑒
′
𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝐶 ∣∣ 𝑅𝐿
ℎ𝑖𝑒 ≈ 𝛽 × 𝑟𝑒
3. High Frequency Region (Treble): Gain drops again.
o Reason: The Internal Transistor Capacitors (𝐶𝜋 , 𝐶𝜇 ) start acting like short
circuits, shunting the signal to ground.

What is 𝒇𝜷 cutoff frequency?

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𝑓𝛽 =
2𝜋ℎ𝑓𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑑 𝑟𝑒 (𝐶𝑏𝑒 + 𝐶𝑏𝑐 )
𝐶𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐶𝑏𝑒 + 𝐶𝑏𝑐 = 40pF + 4pF = 44pF

If hfemid = 120, 1.26 MHz

This is the frequency where the Current Gain 𝛽 drops by 3dB (to 0.707 × 𝛽𝑚𝑎𝑥 ).
The current gain starts dropping way earlier than the voltage gain might!

What is 𝒇𝑻 ?
• (Unity Gain Frequency / Transition Frequency):
This is the "Speed Limit" of the transistor. It is the frequency where the Current Gain (hfe)
drops to 1 (Unity).
o Above 𝑓𝑇 , the transistor is useless as an amplifier (Output < Input).
o 𝑓𝑇 is a fixed number in the datasheet (e.g., for BC107, 𝑓𝑇 ≈ 100MHz-
300MHz).
𝑓𝑇 = ℎ𝑓𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑑 × 𝑓𝛽
𝑓𝑇 = 110 × 1.26MHz
𝑓𝑇 ≈ 138.6MHz

What is gain-bandwidth product?

This is a fundamental law of electronics: You can trade Gain for Bandwidth, but their
product is constant.
If you multiply the Midband Gain by the Bandwidth (or high cutoff frequency), the number is
always the same for a specific transistor.
𝐺𝐵𝑃 = 𝐴𝑣 × 𝑓𝐻 = Constant
o Implication: If you increase gain (by changing resistors), your bandwidth must
decrease.
• This is a fundamental concept in analog design. In a Common Emitter (CE) amplifier,
Negative Feedback acts like a "Trade-Off Machine."
• It forces you to trade Gain (Volume) to get more Bandwidth (Speed/Treble).

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Let the "Desensitivity Factor" be 𝐷 = (1 + 𝐴𝛽).
(Where 𝐴 is open-loop gain and 𝛽is the feedback ratio).
• Gain Decreases: The feedback opposes the input, dividing the gain by $D$.
𝐴
𝐴𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 =
1 + 𝐴𝛽
• Bandwidth Increases: The feedback lowers the circuit's time constants, multiplying
the bandwidth by 𝐷
𝐵𝑊𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 = 𝐵𝑊 × (1 + 𝐴𝛽)
The Result: When you multiply them, the factor (1+𝐴𝛽) cancels out perfectly.
𝐴
𝐺𝐵𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑤 = ( ) × [𝐵𝑊 × (1 + 𝐴𝛽)] = 𝐴 × 𝐵𝑊
1 + 𝐴𝛽

Problem Sheet: High-Frequency Analysis of a CE Amplifier

Problem Statement:
Consider a Single-Stage Common Emitter Amplifier designed using a BC107 transistor. The
circuit is driven by a Function Generator with an internal source resistance (𝑅𝑠 ) and drives an
external Load Resistor (𝑅𝐿 ).
Circuit Parameters:
• Supply Voltage: 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 10 V
• Biasing Resistors: 𝑅1 = 47 k𝛺, 𝑅2 = 10 k𝛺, 𝑅𝐸 = 1 k𝛺
• Collector Resistor: 𝑅𝐶 = 4.7 k𝛺
• Source & Load: 𝑅𝑠 = 50 𝛺, 𝑅𝐿 = 10 k𝛺
• Coupling Capacitors: Assume 𝐶𝑆 , 𝐶𝐶 , 𝐶𝐸 are essentially short circuits at mid-band
frequencies.
Transistor Parameters (BC107):
• DC Current Gain: 𝛽 = ℎ𝑓𝑒 = 110
• Internal Capacitances: 𝐶𝑏𝑒 (𝐶𝜋 ) = 40 pF, 𝐶𝑏𝑐 (𝐶𝜇 ) = 4 pF, 𝐶𝑐𝑒 = 1 pF
• Output Resistance: 𝑟𝑜 = 33 k𝛺
• Stray Wiring Capacitances: 𝐶𝑊𝑖 = 10 pF (Input), 𝐶𝑊𝑜 = 5 pF (Output)
Required Calculations:
1. DC Analysis: Determine the Quiescent Collector Current (𝐼𝐶𝑄 ) and the dynamic
emitter resistance (𝑟𝑒 ).
2. Mid-band Analysis: Calculate the Loaded Voltage Gain (𝐴𝑣 ) in magnitude and
decibels (dB).
3. Transistor Speed: Calculate the Beta Cutoff Frequency (𝑓𝛽 ) and Unity Gain
Bandwidth (𝑓𝑇 ).
4. Circuit Bandwidth: Calculate the High-Frequency Cutoffs for the Input (𝑓𝐻𝑖 ) and
Output (𝑓𝐻𝑜 ) networks. What is the dominant High Cutoff Frequency (𝑓𝐻 )?
5. Figure of Merit: Calculate the Gain-Bandwidth Product (GBP).

Instructor's Solution Key

1. DC Analysis
First, find the DC operating point to determine 𝑟𝑒 .
• Base Voltage (𝑉𝐵 ): Using voltage divider rule (neglecting base current):
𝑅2 10
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = × 10 V ≈ 1.75 V
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 57
• Emitter Current (𝐼𝐸 ): 𝑉𝐸 = 𝑉𝐵 − 0.7 V = 1.05 V.

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 𝑉𝐸 1.05 V
𝐼𝐸 = = = 1.05 mA ≈ 𝟏 𝐦𝐀
𝑅𝐸 1 k𝛺
• Dynamic Resistance (𝑟𝑒 ):
26 mV
𝑟𝑒 = ≈ 𝟐𝟔 𝛀
𝐼𝐸
2. Mid-band Voltage Gain (𝐴𝑣 )
• Transconductance (𝑔𝑚 ): 𝑔𝑚 ≈ 38 mA/V
• Effective Load (𝑅𝐿′ ):
𝑅𝐿′ = 𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑅𝐿 ∥ 𝑟𝑜 = 4.7k ∥ 10k ∥ 33k ≈ 𝟐. 𝟗𝟐 𝐤𝛀
• Voltage Gain (𝐴𝑣 ):
𝐴𝑣 ≈ −𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐿′ = −(38 mA/V)(2.92 k𝛺) ≈ −𝟏𝟏𝟏
• Gain in dB:
20log 10 (111) ≈ 𝟒𝟎. 𝟗 𝐝𝐁
3. Transistor Speed Limits (𝑓𝛽 , 𝑓𝑇 )
• Beta Cutoff (𝑓𝛽 ):
1 1
𝑓𝛽 = = ≈ 𝟏. 𝟐𝟔 𝐌𝐇𝐳
2𝜋𝛽𝑟𝑒 (𝐶𝑏𝑒 + 𝐶𝑏𝑐 ) 2𝜋(110)(26)(44 pF)
• Unity Gain Bandwidth (𝑓𝑇 ):
𝑓𝑇 = 𝛽 × 𝑓𝛽 = 110 × 1.26 MHz ≈ 𝟏𝟑𝟗 𝐌𝐇𝐳
4. Circuit High-Frequency Cutoffs
A. Input Network (𝑓𝐻𝑖 )
• Miller Capacitance: 𝐶𝑀𝑖 = (1 + |𝐴𝑣 |)𝐶𝑏𝑐 = (1 + 111)(4 pF) = 448 pF.
• Total Input Cap (𝐶𝑖 ): 𝐶𝑊𝑖 + 𝐶𝑏𝑒 + 𝐶𝑀𝑖 = 10 + 40 + 448 = 𝟒𝟗𝟖 𝐩𝐅.
• Input Resistance (𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑖 ):
𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑖 = 𝑅𝑠 ∥ 𝑅1 ∥ 𝑅2 ∥ 𝛽𝑟𝑒 ≈ 𝑅𝑠 ∥ 2.6k ≈ 50 ∥ 2600 ≈ 𝟒𝟗 𝛀
(Note: The 50𝛺 source dominates).
• Cutoff Frequency:
1 1
𝑓𝐻𝑖 = = ≈ 𝟔. 𝟓 𝐌𝐇𝐳
2𝜋𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑖 𝐶𝑖 2𝜋(49)(498 pF)
B. Output Network (𝑓𝐻𝑜 )
• Total Output Cap (𝐶𝑜 ): 𝐶𝑊𝑜 + 𝐶𝑐𝑒 + 𝐶𝑏𝑐 = 5 + 1 + 4 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐩𝐅.
• Output Resistance (𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑜 ): Matches effective load 𝑅𝐿′ .
𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑜 = 𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑅𝐿 ∥ 𝑟𝑜 ≈ 𝟐. 𝟗𝟐 𝐤𝛀
• Cutoff Frequency:
1 1
𝑓𝐻𝑜 = = ≈ 𝟓. 𝟒𝟓 𝐌𝐇𝐳
2𝜋𝑅𝑡ℎ𝑜 𝐶𝑜 2𝜋(2920)(10 pF)
C. Dominant Frequency
The bandwidth is determined by the lower of the two frequencies.
𝐟𝐇 ≈ 𝟓. 𝟒𝟓 𝐌𝐇𝐳
5. Gain-Bandwidth Product (GBP)
𝐺𝐵𝑃 = |𝐴𝑣 | × 𝑓𝐻 = 111 × 5.45 MHz ≈ 𝟔𝟎𝟓 𝐌𝐇𝐳

Amplifier classes of operation (Class A, B, AB, C )

What are the main characteristics of an amplifier we are interested in?

1. Linearity
10
Definition: Linearity is the ability of the amplifier to produce an output that is an exact
replica of the input, just bigger.
• Ideally: If you feed in a pure Sine Wave, you get out a pure Sine Wave.
• In Reality: If the amplifier is "Non-Linear," it changes the shape of the wave. This
change is called Distortion (or Harmonic Distortion).
2. Signal Gain
Definition: Gain is simply the ratio of Output to Input. It tells you how much the amplifier
"magnifies" the signal. There are three types:
• Voltage Gain 𝐴𝑣 ): How much the voltage increases.
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐴𝑣 =
𝑉𝑖𝑛
When your source signal is tiny (microvolts or millivolts) and needs to be boosted up to a
standard "Line Level" (typically 1V to 2V) so other circuits can process it. Preservation and
Amplitude. You want to see the shape of the wave clearly without drawing much current.
Common Emitter Amplifier. Example mic pre amp.
• Current Gain (𝐴𝑖 ): How much the current increases.
𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐴𝑖 =
𝐼𝑖𝑛
When you have a Good Voltage, but a Weak Source that cannot supply enough electrons
(Current) to drive a heavy load. This is often called "Buffering" or "Impedance Matching."
Common Collector (Emitter Follower). A arduino board has output 5V but current is 20 mA.
It wants to drive a motor of 5 V but 500 mA current.
• Power Gain (𝐴𝑝 ): The product of voltage and current gain.
𝐴𝑝 = 𝐴𝑣 × 𝐴𝑖
Energy Delivery. You need both high voltage (to push hard) and high current (to sustain the
push). Push Pull Push-Pull (Class AB). Ground speaker. Subwoofer 5000 watts.

3. Efficiency (𝜂)
Definition: Efficiency tells you how good the amplifier is at converting "Battery Power"
(𝐷𝐶) into "Music Power" ( 𝐴𝐶). It is the ratio of useful AC power delivered to the load vs. the
total DC power drained from the supply.
𝑃𝐴𝐶_𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦(𝜂) = × 100%
𝑃𝐷𝐶_𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

Efficiency and linearity mostly go in opposite direction.

4. Power Output (𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 )

Definition: This is the actual amount of AC power (Wattage) delivered to the Load Resistor
(𝑅𝐿 ). This is what actually moves a speaker cone to make sound.
(𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡(𝑟𝑚𝑠) )2
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑅𝐿

𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑉𝑝−𝑝
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡(𝑟𝑚𝑠) = =
√2 2√2

Problem: An input signal of 50 Hz 20 mV p-p is amplified to 1.4 V p-p by a CE amplifier.

Calculate the voltage gain. If the current gain is 28 ((Note: The transistor's own gain is 110,
11
but the circuit "wastes" current in the bias resistors and the collector resistor, bringing the
total efficiency down to 28), calculate the power gain. If the load is 10 K ohm, DC power
supply is 12 V calculate power output and efficiency. The collector current is 1.4 mA, Bias
current is 0.2 mA

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡(𝑝−𝑝)
𝐴𝑣 =
𝑉𝑖𝑛(𝑝−𝑝)

1.4V
𝐴𝑣 = = 70
0.02V
20log 10 (70) ≈ 36.9dB

𝐴𝑝 = 𝐴𝑣 × 𝐴𝑖

𝐴𝑝 = 70 × 28 = 1960
10log 10 (1960) ≈ 32.9dB
(𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 )2
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑝−𝑝 1.4V
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = ≈ 0.495V
2√2 2.828
(0.495)2 0.245
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = =
10000𝛺 10000
(0.495)2 0.245
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = =
10000𝛺 10000

𝐼𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 + 𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

1.4 + 0.2 = 1.6mA
𝑃𝐷𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 × 𝐼𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 12V × 1.6mA = 19.2mW
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡(𝐴𝐶)
𝜂= × 100%
𝑃𝑖𝑛(𝐷𝐶)
0.0245mW
𝜂= × 100%
19.2mW
𝜂 ≈ 0.13%

Why there are different classes of amplifier?

Amplifier Classes are organized by Operating Principle (Conduction Angle), which is the
standard way to classify them in engineering.

Core Concept: The Conduction Angle

Amplifier classes are defined by how much of the input signal cycle (360∘ ) the transistor
actually conducts current.
• Trade-off: You essentially trade Linearity (Sound Quality) for Efficiency (Battery
Life/Heat).

1. Class A Amplifier
• Operating Principle: The transistor is biased in the exact center of the active region
(Q-point is in the middle of the Load Line).

12
 • Conduction Angle: 360∘ (The transistor is ON for the full cycle).
• Mechanism:
o Even with no input signal, a significant DC current 𝐼𝐶𝑄 flows.
o The AC signal just wiggles this current up and down, never turning the
transistor off.
• Pros:
o Excellent Linearity: Lowest distortion. Purest signal.
o Simplicity: Can be done with a single transistor (like your BC107 Lab).
• Cons:
o Terrible Efficiency: Max theoretical is 25% (RC coupled) or 50%
(Transformer coupled).
o Heat: The transistor gets hot even when playing silence.
• Application: Pre-amplifiers, low-power headphone amps, high-end audiophile gear.

2. Class B Amplifier
• Operating Principle: Uses two transistors in a "Push-Pull" configuration. One
handles the positive half of the wave; the other handles the negative half.

• Conduction Angle: 180∘ (Each transistor is ON for exactly half the cycle).
• Mechanism:
o Biased exactly at Cut-off (0V).
o When input is zero, current is zero. No power is wasted at idle.
• Pros:
o High Efficiency: Theoretical max 78.5%.
o Cool operation at idle.
• Cons:

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 o Crossover Distortion: There is a "dead zone" between −0.7V and 0.7V
where neither transistor turns on. The sine wave looks "broken" at the zero
crossing.
• Application: Rarely used in pure form for audio anymore; mostly historical or for
non-critical signals.

3. Class AB Amplifier
"The Industry Standard"
• Operating Principle: A refined version of Class B. It uses "Push-Pull" transistors, but
they are biased slightly ON (trickle current).

• Conduction Angle: 181∘ to 200∘ (Slight overlap).

• Mechanism:
o Diodes are used to hold the base voltage just at the edge of turning on (≈
0.65V).
o This eliminates the "dead zone" because one transistor turns on before the
other turns off.
• Pros:
o Eliminates Crossover Distortion: Sounds almost as good as Class A.
o Good Efficiency: Around 50% to 70% (Slightly less than Class B, but much
better than A).
• Cons:
o Slightly more complex biasing circuitry.
• Application: 99% of Audio Power Amplifiers (TVs, Car Stereos, Home Theater
Systems).

4. Class C Amplifier
"The Radio Specialist"
• Operating Principle: The transistor is biased deeply into the Cut-off region
(Negative bias).

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 • Conduction Angle: <180∘ (Typically $90^\circ$ or pulses).
• Mechanism:
o The transistor only wakes up for the very tip of the input voltage peak.
o The output is a series of "kicks" or pulses, not a sine wave.
o The Tank Circuit: You typically connect an LC (Inductor-Capacitor) circuit
to the output. This resonates (like a pendulum) to "fill in" the missing parts of
the sine wave.
• Pros:
o Highest Efficiency: 80% to 90%. The transistor rests most of the time.
• Cons:
o Massive Distortion: The output is non-linear. Cannot be used for Audio.
• Application: RF Transmitters (Radio), Oscillators, Tuned Circuits.

Summary Table for Students

Feature Class A Class B Class AB Class C
Conduction 360∘ (Full) 180∘ (Half) 180∘ < 𝜃 <180∘ (Pulses)
Angle < 360∘
Signal None (Most Crossover Minimal Massive (Pulse
Distortion Linear) Distortion Output)
Max Efficiency 25% - 50% 78.5% 50% - 78.5% > 90%
Power High (Hot) Low Medium Very Low
Dissipation
Operating Center of Load At Cut-off Slightly above Below Cut-off
Point (Q) Line Cut-off
Best Use Case Pre-Amps / (Obsolete for Standard RF / Radio
Guitar Amps Audio) Audio Amps Transmission

15
Feedback Topologies and Stability Analysis.
The Four Feedback Topologies
Feedback is classified by how we sample "Sensing" the output (Voltage or Current) and
how we mix it into the input (Series or Shunt).
The Naming Convention:
• (Output): What are we sampling?
o Voltage: Connect in Parallel at output.
o Current: Connect in Series at output.
• (Input): How do we mix it?
o Series: Voltage mixing (adds to 𝑉𝑖𝑛 ).
o Shunt: Current mixing (adds to 𝐼𝑖𝑛 ).
1. Voltage Series Feedback (The "Ideal Voltage Amplifier")
• Action: Samples Voltage, Mixes in Series.
• Effect:
o Input Impedance (𝑍𝑖𝑛 ): Increases (Series mixing fights current flow).
o Output Impedance (𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 ): Decreases (Voltage sampling tries to keep V
constant).
• Common Example: Non-Inverting Op-Amp, Emitter Follower.
• Application: Voltage Buffers (High 𝑍𝑖𝑛 , Low 𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 ).

2. Voltage Shunt Feedback (The "Transresistance Amplifier")

• Action: Samples Voltage, Mixes in Shunt.
• Effect:
o Input Impedance (𝑍𝑖𝑛 ): Decreases (Shunt mixing sucks current away).
o Output Impedance (𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 ): Decreases (Voltage sampling).
• Common Example: Inverting Op-Amp.
• Application: Current-to-Voltage Converters (I-to-V).
3. Current Series Feedback (The "Transconductance Amplifier")
• Action: Samples Current, Mixes in Series.
• Effect:
o Input Impedance (𝑍𝑖𝑛 ): Increases (Series mixing).

16
 o Output Impedance (𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 ): Increases (Current sampling fights changes in
current).
• Common Example: CE Amplifier with Emitter Resistor (𝑅𝐸 ), Precision Current
Source.
• Application: Voltage-to-Current Converters (V-to-I).
4. Current Shunt Feedback (The "Current Amplifier")
• Action: Samples Current, Mixes in Shunt.
• Effect:
o Input Impedance (𝑍𝑖𝑛 ): Decreases (Shunt mixing).
o Output Impedance (𝑍𝑜𝑢𝑡 ): Increases (Current sampling).
• Common Example: Current Buffer (Common Base with feedback).
• Application: Current Amplification.

Effect of Negative Feedback

One of the most powerful reasons we use Negative Feedback is to "clean up" the signal. Even
if an amplifier is built with imperfect, cheap, or noisy components, adding a negative
feedback loop can force it to behave almost perfectly.

17
Why do we use feedback if it lowers the gain? Because it buys us Control and
Performance.
Assume Open Loop Gain is 𝐴 and Feedback Factor is 𝛽. The new Closed Loop Gain is:
𝐴
𝐴𝑓 =
1 + 𝐴𝛽
1. Effect on Gain (Desensitivity)
• The Effect: Gain decreases significantly.

• The Benefit: The gain becomes Desensitive to changes in the transistor's parameters
(ℎ𝑓𝑒 or temp). If 𝐴𝛽 is huge, the gain simplifies to 1/𝛽. The gain is now set by
precise resistors, not the messy transistor.

2. Effect on Bandwidth
• The Effect: Bandwidth Increases.

• The Principle: The Gain-Bandwidth Product (GBP) is constant. Since feedback

lowers gain by a factor of (1 + 𝐴𝛽), the bandwidth must increase by that same factor.

𝐵𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝐵𝑊𝑜𝑙𝑑 × (1 + 𝐴𝛽)

3. Effect on Distortion & Noise
• The Effect: Non-linear distortion is reduced by the factor (1 + 𝐴𝛽). The feedback
loop "corrects" the errors introduced by the amplifier.

How the Distortion is reduced?

Real transistors are not perfect. Their graph of Input vs. Output is not a straight line—it is
curved.
Ideally: If you put in a pure Sine Wave, you get out a bigger pure Sine Wave.
Reality: The transistor amplifies the top of the wave more than the bottom (or vice versa),
causing the sine wave to look "squashed" or "pointed." This introduces new frequencies
called Harmonics (Distortion).
Imagine the amplifier introduces a "bump" on the top of the sine wave (Distortion).
1. Sampling: The feedback network "sees" this bump at the output.
2. Feeding Back: It sends a sample of this bump back to the input, but inverted (180∘
phase shift).
3. Correction: The input mixer subtracts this "bump" from the clean source signal.
4. Result: The amplifier receives a "pre-distorted" input (with a dip where the bump
would be). When the amplifier adds its natural bump, it cancels out the dip, leaving a
perfectly clean output.

How the noise is reduced?

Not all noise is [Link] amplifier power supply has a "hum" 50Hz or the output
transistors are noisy. This noise is generated inside the loop, after the amplification has
started.
The feedback loop "sees" the hum at the output. It feeds it back to the input inverted. The
amplifier then cancels out its own hum.
𝑁𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑁𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
1 + 𝐴𝛽

18
Stability, Gain Margin, and Phase Margin
Feedback is great, but it has a dark side: Instability (Oscillation).

1. The Concept of Stability

Negative feedback works because the return signal is 180∘ out of phase (subtracting).
However, amplifiers naturally shift phase as frequency increases (due to internal capacitors).
• The Danger Zone: If the internal lag adds another 180∘ , the total shift is 360∘ (0∘ ).
• Result: "Negative" feedback becomes "Positive" feedback. The amplifier turns into
an oscillator and howls.
2. The Barkhausen Criterion for Oscillation
The circuit will oscillate if, at a specific frequency:
1. Loop Gain magnitude |𝐴𝛽| ≥ 1.
2. Phase Shift around the loop is 180∘ (Total 360∘ ).
To ensure stability, we must ensure these two conditions never happen at the same time. We
measure "how safe we are" using Margins.

3. Phase Margin (PM)

• Definition: At the frequency where the Gain is 1 (0 dB), how much extra phase shift
would it take to reach the dangerous 180∘ point?
• Calculation:
𝑃𝑀 = 180∘ − |𝜙𝑎𝑡_𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛_𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 |
• Safe Value: An amplifier needs a PM of at least 45∘ (ideally 60∘ ) to be stable.
o 𝑃𝑀 > 0∘ : Stable (but might ring).
o 𝑃𝑀 < 0∘ : Unstable (Oscillator).
4. Gain Margin (GM)
• Definition: At the frequency where the Phase Shift is exactly 180∘ , how much gain
do we have below 0 dB? (i.e., How much gain safety buffer do we have?)
• Calculation:
𝐺𝑀(𝑑𝐵) = 0 dB − |𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡_𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒_𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 |
• Safe Value: We usually want a GM of > 10 dB. This means when the phase hits
180∘ , the signal has already died out (gain is well below 1), so it cannot sustain
oscillation.

Calculations
Part 1: Effect of Negative Feedback
Problem 1: Gain and Bandwidth Extension
• Statement: An open-loop amplifier has a mid-band gain (𝐴) of 1000 and a bandwidth
(𝐵𝑊) of 20 kHz. We introduce negative feedback with a feedback factor 𝛽 = 0.09.
• Calculate:
1. The new Closed-Loop Gain (𝐴𝑓 ).
2. The new Closed-Loop Bandwidth (𝐵𝑊𝑓 ).
• Solution:
o Step 1: Calculate Loop Gain term (1 + 𝐴𝛽)
1 + 𝐴𝛽 = 1 + (1000 × 0.09) = 1 + 90 = 𝟗𝟏
o Step 2: Calculate New Gain
𝐴 1000
𝐴𝑓 = = ≈ 𝟏𝟎. 𝟗𝟗
1 + 𝐴𝛽 91
o Step 3: Calculate New Bandwidth
𝐵𝑊𝑓 = 𝐵𝑊 × (1 + 𝐴𝛽) = 20 kHz × 91 = 𝟏𝟖𝟐𝟎 𝐤𝐇𝐳 (1.82 MHz)

19
 o Insight: We traded gain (1000 → 11) to get a massive bandwidth boost (20k →
1.8M).
Problem 2: Distortion Reduction
• Statement: A power amplifier produces 8% harmonic distortion (𝐷) at full volume.
The open-loop gain is 200. We want to reduce the distortion to 1% or less using
negative feedback. What is the minimum feedback factor (𝛽) required?
• Calculate: 𝛽.
• Solution:
𝐷
o Formula: 𝐷𝑓 =
1+𝐴𝛽
𝐷
o Rearrange: 1 + 𝐴𝛽 = 𝐷
𝑓
o Plug in values:
8%
1 + (200)𝛽 = =8
1%
200𝛽 = 7
7
𝛽= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟓
200
o Answer: You need a feedback factor of 0.035 (3.5%).
Problem 3: Gain Desensitivity (Stability against Parameter Changes)
• Statement: An amplifier has an open-loop gain 𝐴 = 1000 which drops to 𝐴 = 500
due to temperature rising. The feedback factor is fixed at 𝛽 = 0.1.
Calculate the percentage change in the Closed-Loop Gain (𝐴𝑓 ).
• Solution:
o Case 1 (Cold): 𝐴 = 1000.
1000 1000
𝐴𝑓1 = = ≈ 𝟗. 𝟗𝟎
1 + (1000 × 0.1) 101
o Case 2 (Hot): 𝐴 = 500.
500 500
𝐴𝑓2 = = ≈ 𝟗. 𝟖𝟎
1 + (500 × 0.1) 51
o Percentage Change:
9.90 − 9.80
Change = × 100 ≈ 𝟏%
9.90
o Insight: The transistor gain dropped by 50% (disaster!), but the feedback
system gain only dropped by 1%. This is desensitivity.

Part 2: Stability, Gain Margin, and Phase Margin

Problem 4: Calculating Phase Margin (PM)
• Statement: You analyze the Bode Plot of a feedback amplifier. At the "Gain
Crossover Frequency" (where Gain = 0 dB), the phase shift of the system is measured
to be −135∘ .
• Calculate: The Phase Margin. Is the system stable?
• Solution:
o Formula: 𝑃𝑀 = 180∘ − |𝜙𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 |
o Calculation:
𝑃𝑀 = 180∘ − | − 135∘ |
𝑃𝑀 = 180∘ − 135∘ = 𝟒𝟓∘
o Verdict: Since 𝑃𝑀 > 0, the system is Stable. (Ideally, we want > 45∘ , so this
is borderline but acceptable).
Problem 5: Calculating Gain Margin (GM)

20
 • Statement: At the "Phase Crossover Frequency" (where Phase = −180∘ ), the gain of
the amplifier is measured to be −12 dB.
• Calculate: The Gain Margin. Is the system stable?
• Solution:
o Formula: 𝐺𝑀 = 0 dB − 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝐵 (at − 180∘ )
o Calculation:
𝐺𝑀 = 0 − (−12 dB) = +𝟏𝟐 𝐝𝐁
o Verdict: Since 𝐺𝑀 is positive (and > 10 dB), the system is Stable.
Problem 6: The Barkhausen Criterion (Oscillation Check)
• Statement: An oscillator circuit is designed with an amplifier of Gain 𝐴 and a
feedback network 𝛽.
1. If 𝐴 = 50 and 𝛽 = 0.01, will it oscillate?
2. If 𝐴 = 50 and 𝛽 = 0.02, will it oscillate?
• Solution:
o Criterion: For oscillation, Loop Gain |𝐴𝛽| ≥ 1.
o Case 1:
|𝐴𝛽| = 50 × 0.01 = 𝟎. 𝟓
Result: 0.5 < 1. The oscillations will die out. No Oscillation.
o Case 2:
|𝐴𝛽| = 50 × 0.02 = 𝟏. 𝟎
Result: 1.0 = 1. The Barkhausen criterion is met. Sustained Oscillations.

21