Module 3 Oscillators, Current Mirrors and

Differential Amplifiers

Contents
Module 3 Oscillators, Current Mirrors and Differential Amplifiers .......................................... 1
What is an oscillator? ............................................................................................................. 3
Types of oscillators ................................................................................................................ 3
Block diagram of an oscillator ............................................................................................... 3
The Role and working of the Tank Circuit (The "Tuning Fork") .......................................... 3
Working of an oscillator ......................................................................................................... 4
The Rule for Oscillation: Barkhausen Criterion .................................................................... 4
Classification of oscillators .................................................................................................... 4
1. Classification by Frequency Generating Components ................................................... 5
2. Classification by Output Waveform ............................................................................... 5
RC Phase shift oscillator ........................................................................................................ 6
Construction ....................................................................................................................... 6
Working.............................................................................................................................. 6
Advantages ......................................................................................................................... 7
Disadvantages .................................................................................................................... 7
Applications ....................................................................................................................... 7
Wien Bridge Oscillator .......................................................................................................... 8
Problem : Analysis of RC Phase Shift Oscillator................................................................... 9
Problem : Design of Wien Bridge Oscillator ....................................................................... 10
Hartley oscillator .................................................................................................................. 11
Construction ..................................................................................................................... 11
Working............................................................................................................................ 12
4. Advantages ................................................................................................................... 12
5. Disadvantages .............................................................................................................. 13
6. Applications ................................................................................................................. 13
Problem ............................................................................................................................ 13
Colpitts Oscillator ................................................................................................................ 13
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 13
2. Circuit Diagram ........................................................................................................... 13
3. Resonant Frequency Formula ...................................................................................... 14
4. Advantages ................................................................................................................... 14
5. Disadvantages .............................................................................................................. 14

1
 6. Applications ................................................................................................................. 15
7. Problem: ....................................................................................................................... 15
Construction of an OpAmp .................................................................................................. 16
Current Mirror ...................................................................................................................... 21
Basic Current Mirror ........................................................................................................ 22
Current Mirror is used as a Active Load .......................................................................... 22
Differential amplifier ........................................................................................................... 25
1. Differential Mode (Double-Ended Operation) ............................................................. 25
2. Common Mode ............................................................................................................ 25
3. Single-Ended Mode ..................................................................................................... 26
Calculations...................................................................................................................... 27

2
What is an oscillator?
Any circuit that generates an alternating signal is called oscillator. To generate ac signal, the
circuit is supplied energy from a dc source. The oscillators have variety of applications. In some
application we need signal of low frequencies, in other of very high frequencies.
The frequency ranges of the ac signal at the output of oscillator ranges from a few Hz to several
GHz.
Oscillator simply requires dc voltage in order to produce ac signal of desired frequency.

Types of oscillators
• Sinusoidal or Harmonic Oscillator: Here the achieved signal at the output of
oscillator shows continuous sinusoidal variation as a function of time.
• Non-sinusoidal or Relaxation Oscillator: In this case, the achieved signal at the
output of oscillator shows a quick rise and fall at different voltage levels. Thereby
generating waveforms such as a square wave, sawtooth wave etc.

Block diagram of an oscillator

Oscillator core operation relies on a positive feedback loop connecting an amplifier and a
frequency-determining feedback network.

Amplifier (Gain '𝐴'): Boosts the signal, usually a transistor or op-amp.

Feedback Network (Gain '𝛽'): Determines the frequency of oscillation, feeding a portion of
the output back to the input.
DC Power Supply: Provides the necessary energy to sustain oscillations.
The oscillatory circuit or a frequency-determining element can be an inductance-capacitance
network (L-C tank), resistance-capacitance (R-C network), or a quartz crystal, depending on
the frequency and waveshape desired. often called the Tank Circuit).

The Role and working of the Tank Circuit (The "Tuning Fork")
Just like a tuning fork only vibrates at one specific pitch (e.g., 440 Hz) no matter how hard
you strike it, the Tank Circuit forces the oscillator to generate only one specific frequency
(fr).
It is usually made of:
1. Inductor (L) + Capacitor (C): For high frequencies (Radio, TV).
2. Resistor (R) + Capacitor (C): For low frequencies (Audio).
 Imagine the Capacitor is fully charged. It discharges its electrons through the Inductor.
 As current flows through the Inductor, it builds up a Magnetic Field.
 Once the Capacitor is empty, the Magnetic Field collapses, forcing current to keep flowing
and charging the Capacitor in the opposite direction.
 This energy "sloshes" back and forth between the Electric Field (Capacitor) and Magnetic
Field (Inductor) indefinitely.
This exchange doesn't happen at random speeds. It happens at a precise rate determined by
the values of L and C

3
 1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

Working of an oscillator
1. Starting of the circuit
 When you first switch on the power, there is no signal. However, every electronic
component generates a tiny amount of random electrical noise (thermal noise).
 This tiny noise acts as the initial "spark" or input signal.

2. Amplification
• The amplifier takes this tiny noise signal and amplifies it, making it slightly larger at
the output.
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴 × 𝑉𝑖𝑛
 The Feedback Network (Tank Circuit) blocks every frequency except 𝑓𝑟 .
 Only 𝑓𝑟 makes it back to the input to be amplified again.
 The loop quickly locks onto this single frequency.
3. Feedback (The Critical Step)
𝑉𝑓 = 𝛽 × 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
In a real oscillator, there is no external 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑓
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴 × 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝛽𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴 × (𝛽𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
1 = 𝐴𝛽
• The feedback network takes from this output and sends it back to the input in phase
with the original signal.
• "In phase" means the peaks align. This adds to the input, making it stronger.

4. Sustainable Oscillation
• The strengthened signal goes through the amplifier again, gets bigger, is fed back
again, and gets even bigger.
• This loop continues until the amplifier reaches its maximum limit (saturation),
resulting in a steady, continuous waveform.

The Rule for Oscillation: Barkhausen Criterion

For the circuit to sustain oscillations indefinitely, two conditions must be met:
1. Loop Gain Must be ≥1:
The product of the Amplifier Gain (A) and the Feedback Factor (𝛽) must be at least 1.
∣ 𝐴𝛽 ∣≥ 1
(If it's less than 1, the signal dies out. If it's exactly 1, you get a perfect steady sine wave).
2. Phase Shift Must be 0° or 360°:
The signal fed back to the input must be exactly in phase with the input signal.
o If the amplifier (like a Common Emitter) introduces a 180° shift, the feedback
network must introduce another 180° shift to bring the total to 360° (which is
effectively 0°).

Classification of oscillators
Oscillators are classified based on the components used to determine the frequency and the
range of frequencies they can generate.

4
1. Classification by Frequency Generating Components
The most common way to group them is by what makes up the "Tank Circuit" (Frequency
Selective Network).
A. RC Oscillators (Resistor + Capacitor)
• Principle: Uses a network of resistors and capacitors to create the required phase
shift.
• Frequency Range: Audio Frequency (AF) (20 Hz – 200 kHz).
• Why used here? At low frequencies, Inductors (L) would need to be physically huge
and heavy. Resistors and Capacitors are small and cheap.
• Common Types:
1. RC Phase Shift Oscillator: Uses three RC stages to shift phase by 60∘ each
3 × 60∘ = 180∘ ). Good for fixed frequencies.
2. Wien Bridge Oscillator: Uses a bridge circuit for tuning. This is the standard
circuit used in laboratory Audio Signal Generators because it is easy to tune
over a wide range.
B. LC Oscillators (Inductor + Capacitor)
• Principle: Uses a "Tank Circuit" of Inductors and Capacitors.
• Frequency Range: Radio Frequency (RF) (100 kHz – 100 MHz+).
• Why used here? At high frequencies, tiny inductors work perfectly, and RC circuits
become lossy.
• Common Types:
1. Hartley Oscillator: Uses Two Inductors (tapped coil) and One Capacitor.
2. Colpitts Oscillator: Uses Two Capacitors and One Inductor. (More stable
than Hartley).
3. Clapp Oscillator: A modified Colpitts for even better stability.
C. Crystal Oscillators
• Principle: Uses a Quartz Crystal (Piezoelectric effect) instead of an LC tank.
• Frequency Range: Fixed HF/VHF.
• Key Feature: Extreme Frequency Stability. Unlike RC or LC, it does not drift with
temperature or time.
• Type: Pierce Oscillator (Standard in almost all digital clocks).

2. Classification by Output Waveform

1. Sinusoidal (Harmonic) Oscillators:
o Output is a pure Sine Wave.
o Examples: Wien Bridge, Hartley, Colpitts, Crystal.
2. Non-Sinusoidal (Relaxation) Oscillators:
o Output changes abruptly (Square, Triangular, Sawtooth).
o Examples: Multivibrators (Astable), UJT Relaxation Oscillator, 555 Timer
circuits.
Oscillator Frequency Stability Main Application
Type Range
RC Phase Low (Audio) Poor Voice/Audio synthesis, fixed tones.
Shift
Wien Bridge Low (Audio) Good Lab Function Generators, Audio testing.
Hartley High (RF) Moderate Radio Receivers (Local Oscillator), TV
tuners.
Colpitts High (RF) Better High-frequency RF Generators, Mobile
comms.

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 Crystal Fixed (High) Excellent Microprocessors (Clocks), Watches,
USB timing.
Relaxation Variable Poor Blinkers, PWM control, oscilloscope
sweep.

RC Phase shift oscillator

Construction
The RC Phase shift oscillator uses common emitter configuration i.e. CE configuration of
transistor. It produces 180° phase shift in addition to the phase shift of 180° by the transistor.
So we get total 360° phase shift to produce positive feedback.
Feedback network consisting of resistor and capacitors arranged in ladder fashion. Hence
such an oscillator is also called ladder type RC phase shift oscillator.

DC Power
Supply

CE Amplfier
Working
When supply is connected to the circuit, the base current of T1 suddenly increases. This change
is amplified by T1 to produce negative feedback of 180° to the phase shift network.
The phase shift network also produces another 180° phase shift. So the total phase shift is 360°
i.e. the input and output signals are in-phase.
Since transistor T1 is used as amplifier, the circuit produces sustained oscillations. The output
frequency of the circuit is given by the following formula:
The feedback factor is
1
𝛽=
−29

The negative sign indicates a 180∘ phase shift (which is exactly what we wanted). The
magnitude is 1/29

6
Required Gain (A): Since loop gain

∣ 𝐴𝛽 ∣≥ 1
1
∣ 𝐴 ∣× ≥1
29
∣ 𝐴 ∣≥ 29

Where, R = resistor in phase shift network in ohms and C = capacitor in

phase shift network in Farad
• To sustain oscillations, the Amplifier (Op-Amp or Transistor) must have a gain of at
least 29.
1
• The frequency is determined by R, C, and the factor derived from the 3-stage
√6
network.

Advantages
• Simple & Cheap: It uses only Resistors (R) and Capacitors (C). It does not require
expensive or bulky Inductors (L) or transformers.
+1
• Excellent for Low Frequencies: Generating low frequencies (like 20 Hz) using LC
oscillators is difficult because the inductors would need to be physically huge. RC
circuits handle this easily.
• Good Sine Wave Output: It produces a reasonably pure sine wave with low
distortion compared to relaxation oscillators.
• Fixed Frequency Stability: For a fixed frequency (where you don't need to change
the dial), the frequency stability is good enough for general-purpose audio
applications.
Disadvantages
• High Gain Requirement: The feedback network attenuates the signal by a factor of
29. This means the amplifier (Op-Amp or Transistor) must have a gain of 𝐴 ≥ 29 just
to start oscillating. If the gain drops (e.g., due to battery aging), the oscillator stops.
• Difficult to Tune (Variable Frequency): Changing the frequency is very hard. To
change fr smoothly, you must change all three capacitors or all three resistors
simultaneously. This requires a specialized "3-gang" potentiometer, which is rare and
expensive. (The Wien Bridge oscillator is much better for variable frequency).
• Poor High-Frequency Performance: At high frequencies, the capacitors become
almost like short circuits, and the resistors become noisy. It is generally not used
above 100 kHz.
• Starting Problem: Sometimes it struggles to self-start. The initial oscillations can be
weak and take time to stabilize.
Applications
• Audio Signal Generators: Used in basic lab equipment to generate fixed audio tones
(e.g., 1 kHz test tone).
• Musical Instruments: Used in early electronic organs and synthesizers to generate
musical notes.
• Voice Synthesis: Used in telecommunications to generate voice-frequency signals.
• Biomedical Equipment: Used in GPS or medical devices where low-frequency AC
signals are needed for testing sensors.

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Wien Bridge Oscillator
1. Introduction
The Wien Bridge Oscillator is the standard oscillator circuit for generating Audio
Frequencies (20 Hz – 200 kHz). Unlike the RC Phase Shift oscillator which uses a single
transistor, the Wien Bridge usually uses two transistor stages to create a 360∘ phase shift.
2. Construction
The circuit consists of two main blocks: the Amplifier and the Bridge Network.
DC Power Feedback
Supply

CE Amplfier

CE Amplfier

A. The Two-Stage Amplifier

• Why two transistors? A single Common Emitter (CE) amplifier produces a
180∘ phase shift. The Wien Bridge network produces 0∘ phase shift at the resonant
frequency.
• To satisfy the Barkhausen Criterion (total phase shift around the loop must be 0∘ or
360∘ , we need a second amplifier to invert the signal again.
o Transistor Q1: Inverts input by 180∘ .
o Transistor Q2: Inverts Q1's output by another 180∘ .
o Total Phase Shift: 180∘ + 180∘ = 360∘ (which is effectively 0∘ ).
B. The Feedback Network (The "Bridge")
The bridge consists of four arms:
1. Series RC Arm (𝑅1 , 𝐶1 ): Acts as a High-Pass Filter.
2. Parallel RC Arm 𝑅2 , 𝐶2 :Acts as a Low-Pass Filter.
3. Resistor Arms (𝑅3 , 𝑅4 ): These form a voltage divider to stabilize the gain.
The output of the second transistor is fed back to the bridge input.

3. Working Principle
1. The "Start-Up"
When power is switched on, noise currents start flowing in the circuit. This noise contains all
frequencies.
2. Frequency Selection
The feedback network (Series 𝑅𝐶+ Parallel 𝑅𝐶) acts as a Band-Pass Filter.
• At low frequencies, the Series Capacitor blocks the signal.
• At high frequencies, the Parallel Capacitor shorts the signal to ground.

8
 • Only at the Resonant Frequency (𝑓𝑟 ), the bridge allows the maximum signal to pass
through with exactly 0∘ phase shift.
3. Sustained Oscillation
The selected frequency fr is fed into the first transistor (Q1), amplified and inverted (180∘ ),
then fed to the second transistor (Q2), amplified and inverted again (180∘ ).
• The total loop phase shift is 0∘ + 180∘ + 180∘ = 3360∘ .
• The signal reinforces itself, leading to sustained oscillations.

4. Key Formulas (Derivations)

A. Frequency of Oscillation (fr)
Using the standard bridge balance condition where 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅and 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 𝐶:
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
B. Feedback Factor (𝛽)
The feedback network attenuation is calculated at the resonant frequency.
𝑉𝑓 1
𝛽= =
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 3
(This means the feedback network weakens the signal by a factor of 3).
C. Gain Requirement (A)
According to the Barkhausen Criterion, ∣ 𝐴𝛽 ∣≥ 1
1
𝐴× ≥1
3
𝐴≥3
• Conclusion: The two-stage amplifier must have a total voltage gain of at least 3 to
sustain oscillations.

5. Advantages
1. Variable Frequency: It is very easy to change the frequency by using a variable
capacitor (gang condenser) or variable resistor (potentiometer). The frequency varies
as $1/R$, whereas in LC oscillators it varies as 1/√𝐿
2. Excellent Stability: The frequency is very stable compared to other RC oscillators.
3. Pure Sine Wave: The output has very low distortion because of the negative feedback
used for stabilization.
4. Constant Output: The amplitude of the output voltage remains relatively constant
across different frequencies.
6. Disadvantages
1. Complexity: Requires two transistors and more components than the single-transistor
RC Phase Shift oscillator.
2. Frequency Limit: Cannot generate very high frequencies (RF) due to the limitations
of resistors and capacitors at high speeds. Ideally limited to <1MHz
7. Applications
1. Lab Signal Generators: Standard Audio Frequency (AF) signal generators used in
labs use Wien Bridge circuits.
2. Audio Testing: Used to test amplifiers and filters.
3. Distortion Analyzers: Used as a reference source for measuring distortion in audio
equipment.

Problem : Analysis of RC Phase Shift Oscillator

Statement:

9
A BJT-based RC Phase Shift Oscillator is built using three identical RC sections in the
feedback network. The component values used are:
• Resistors (𝑅): 10 k𝛺
• Capacitors (𝐶): 0.01 𝜇F
Determine:
1. The Frequency of Oscillation (𝑓𝑟 ).
2. The Feedback Factor (𝛽) of the network at resonance.
3. The minimum Voltage Gain (𝐴𝑣 ) required from the transistor amplifier to sustain
oscillations.
Solution:
1. Frequency of Oscillation (𝑓𝑟 ):
Formula:
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 √6
Substitute values:
𝑅 = 10 × 103 𝛺
𝐶 = 0.01 × 10−6 F = 10−8 F
√6 ≈ 2.45
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2 × 3.1416 × 104 × 10−8 × 2.45
1
𝑓𝑟 =
0.001539
𝑓𝑟 ≈ 𝟔𝟒𝟗 𝐇𝐳
2. Feedback Factor (𝛽):
For a standard 3-section RC ladder network, the attenuation is fixed mathematically.
1
𝛽=
29
(Note: It is unitless).
3. Minimum Gain (𝐴𝑣 ):
Using the Barkhausen Criterion |𝐴𝛽| ≥ 1:
1
𝐴≥
𝛽
𝐴 ≥ 29
Answer: The amplifier must have a gain of at least 29.

Problem : Design of Wien Bridge Oscillator

Statement:
You need to design a Wien Bridge Oscillator to generate a pure sine wave at Audio
Frequency 𝑓𝑟 = 5 kHz. You have a stock of 0.01 𝜇F capacitors.
Task:
1. Calculate the value of the Resistors (𝑅) required for the bridge arms.
2. If the feedback resistors used for the amplifier gain are 𝑅𝑓 and 𝑅1 , determine the
𝑅
required ratio 𝑅𝑓 .
1
Solution:
1. Calculate Resistor (𝑅):
Formula:
10
 1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
Rearrange to solve for 𝑅:
1
𝑅=
2𝜋𝑓𝑟 𝐶
Substitute values:
𝑓𝑟 = 5000 Hz
𝐶 = 0.01 × 10−6 F = 10−8 F
1
𝑅=
2 × 3.1416 × 5000 × 10−8
1
𝑅=
3.1416 × 10−4
𝑅 ≈ 𝟑. 𝟏𝟖 𝐤𝛀
(Standard value closest is 3.3 k𝛺, but for calculation, use 3.18 k𝛺).
2. Determine Gain Ratio (𝑅𝑓 /𝑅1 ):
For a Wien Bridge, the loop gain must be at least 3 to overcome the feedback attenuation
(𝛽 = 1/3).
𝑅𝑓
𝐴=1+ ≥3
𝑅1
Therefore:
𝑅𝑓
≥2
𝑅1
Answer: You need resistors of 3.18 k𝛺 and the feedback resistor 𝑅𝑓 must be at least twice
the value of input resistor 𝑅1 (e.g., 𝑅𝑓 = 20 k𝛺, 𝑅1 = 10 k𝛺).

Hartley oscillator
The Hartley oscillator is a tuned LC tank circuit constructed consisting of one capacitor, two
inductors, and a transistor serving as the amplifying element. Due to its adaptability, it can be
used in a wide range of RF communication systems, including frequency synthesizers, signal
generators, and local oscillators in radio transmitters and receivers. The Hartley oscillator is a
primary source of RF circuit design because of its simplicity, efficiency, and ease of
application. Thus, Hartley oscillators are widely used in industrial applications.
Construction

The feedback part of the tuned LC tank circuit is taken from the centre tap of the inductor
coil. inductance L acts like two separate coils in very close proximity with the current
flowing through coil section XY induces a signal into coil section YZ below.

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Working
When the circuit is oscillating, the voltage at point X (collector), relative to
point Y (emitter), is 180o out-of-phase with the voltage at point Z (base) relative to point Y.
At the frequency of oscillation, the impedance of the Collector load is resistive and an
increase in Base voltage causes a decrease in the Collector voltage.
Principle: It uses an amplifier (BJT or Op-Amp) and an LC tank circuit for feedback.
The tank circuit provides a 180∘ phase shift, and the amplifier provides another 180∘ ,
creating the required $ 360∘ (or 0∘ ) positive feedback.
The amount of feedback depends upon the position of the “tapping point” of the
inductor. If this is moved nearer to the collector the amount of feedback is increased, but the
output taken between the Collector and earth is reduced and vice versa.
Resistors, R1 and R2 provide the usual stabilizing DC bias for the transistor in the
normal manner while the capacitors act as DC-blocking capacitors.
In this Hartley Oscillator circuit, the DC Collector current flows through part of the
coil and for this reason the circuit is said to be “Series-fed” with the frequency of oscillation
of the Hartley Oscillator being given as.
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝑒𝑞 𝐶
𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀
 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 : Inductance of the two sections of the coil.
 𝑀 Mutual inductance between the coils (often ignored in basic calculations, so
𝐿𝑒𝑞 ≈ 𝐿1 + 𝐿2
 𝐶: The tank capacitor.

The frequency of oscillations can be adjusted by varying the “tuning” capacitor, C or by

varying the position of the iron-dust core inside the coil (inductive tuning) giving an output
over a wide range of frequencies making it very easy to tune. Also the Hartley
Oscillator produces an output amplitude which is constant over the entire frequency range.

4. Advantages
1. Easy Tuning: You can vary the frequency over a wide range using a single Variable
Capacitor (tuning capacitor). The amplitude of the output remains fairly constant as
you tune it.
2. Simple Construction: It requires very few components compared to other oscillators
(like the Wien Bridge).

12
 3. Good for RF: It is extremely reliable for generating Radio Frequencies (typically 20
kHz to 30 MHz).
5. Disadvantages
1. Not for Low Frequencies: To generate Audio Frequencies (e.g., 50 Hz), the value of
L would need to be huge, making the inductor physically large, heavy, and expensive.
2. Harmonic Distortion: The output is not a pure sine wave. It often contains
harmonics (multiples of the fundamental frequency) because of the strong feedback.
3. Mutual Inductance Complexity: In practical circuits, calculation is tricky because
you must account for the magnetic coupling ($M$) between the two coil sections.
6. Applications
1. Radio Receivers: It is the standard "Local Oscillator" in AM/FM radio receivers to
mix with the incoming signal.
2. RF Signal Generators: Used in laboratory equipment to generate high-frequency
sine waves.
3. Function Generators: Used as the source for the high-frequency range.

Problem
A Hartley Oscillator consists of a tank circuit with two inductor sections of 𝐿1 = 1mH and
𝐿2 = 1mH. The mutual inductance between them is negligible (𝑀 = 0). The capacitor used is
𝐶 = 10nF. Calculate the Frequency of Oscillation.
𝐿𝑒𝑞 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 = 1mH + 1mH = 2mH = 2 × 10−3 H
𝐶 = 10nF = 10 × 10−9 F
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝑒𝑞 𝐶
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋√(2 × 10−3 )(10 × 10−9 )
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋√20 × 10−12
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋 × 4.47 × 10−6
𝑓𝑟 ≈ 35.6kHz

Colpitts Oscillator
It is the "twin" of the Hartley oscillator. While Hartley uses a voltage divider made of
Inductors, Colpitts uses a voltage divider made of Capacitors.
1. Introduction
The Colpitts Oscillator is widely regarded as the most stable LC oscillator. It is the preferred
choice for signal generators operating at high Radio Frequencies (RF).
• Identification: If you see two capacitors (in series) and one inductor in the
feedback network, it is a Colpitts Oscillator.
• Principle: The tank circuit consists of an Inductor (𝐿) in parallel with two series
capacitors (𝐶1 and 𝐶2 ). The feedback voltage is taken across 𝐶2 . The capacitive
voltage divider provides the necessary phase shift to sustain oscillations.
2. Circuit Diagram

13
An inductor L is connected parallel to the serial combination of capacitors C1 and C2 (shown
by the red enclosure). Other components in the circuit are the same as that found in the case
of common-emitter CE, which is biased using a voltage divider network, i.e., RC is the
collector resistor, RE is the emitter resistor which is used to stabilize the circuit, and the
resistors R1 and R2 form the voltage divider bias network.

3. Resonant Frequency Formula

The frequency is determined by the Inductor (𝐿) and the Equivalent Capacitance (𝐶𝑒𝑞 ) of
the series combination.
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋 √𝐿𝐶𝑒𝑞
Crucial Calculation: Since 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are in series, the equivalent capacitance is:
𝐶1 𝐶2
𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
• 𝐿: Inductance of the tank coil.
• 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 : The two capacitors forming the voltage divider.

4. Advantages
1. Superior Stability: It is much more stable than the Hartley oscillator. Because
capacitors are less prone to temperature drift and mutual coupling issues than
inductors, the frequency stays constant.
2. Pure Waveform: It produces a cleaner sine wave with less harmonic distortion than
the Hartley.
3. High Frequency: It is excellent for very high frequencies (VHF/UHF), up to 100
MHz or more.
5. Disadvantages
1. Hard to Tune: This is its biggest weakness. To change the frequency smoothly, you
must change both 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 simultaneously while keeping their ratio constant. This
requires a special "ganged" capacitor, which is bulky and expensive.
2. Low Output Voltage: The feedback fraction depends on the ratio of 𝐶1 /𝐶2 . If this
ratio isn't perfect, the oscillation might die out.

14
6. Applications
1. Mobile Communications: Used in cell phones and radios for generating high-
frequency carrier waves.
2. Microwave Systems: Ideally suited for microwave generation.
3. Surface Acoustical Wave (SAW) Resonators: Often used in sensors and remote
controls.

7. Problem:
A Colpitts Oscillator is designed with a tank circuit having an inductor 𝐿 = 100 𝜇H. The
capacitive divider consists of two capacitors: 𝐶1 = 10 nF and 𝐶2 = 10 nF.
Calculate the Frequency of Oscillation.
Solution:
Step 1: Calculate Equivalent Capacitance (𝐶𝑒𝑞 )
Since 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are in series:
𝐶1 𝐶2 10 × 10 100
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = = = = 𝟓 𝐧𝐅
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 10 + 10 20
(Or simply: since they are equal, the total is half: 10/2 = 5).
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 5 × 10−9 F
Step 2: Calculate Frequency (𝑓𝑟 )
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋 √𝐿𝐶𝑒𝑞
−6
Substitute values (𝐿 = 100 × 10 ):
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋 √(100 × 10−6 )(5 × 10−9 )
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋 √500 × 10−15
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋 √5 × 10−13
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋(7.07 × 10−7 )
1
𝑓𝑟 ≈
4.44 × 10−6
𝑓𝑟 ≈ 𝟐𝟐𝟓 𝐤𝐇𝐳
Answer: The circuit oscillates at 225 kHz.

Comparison : Hartley vs Colpitts

Feature Hartley Oscillator Colpitts Oscillator
Tank Elements 2 Inductors + 1 Capacitor 2 Capacitors + 1 Inductor
Tuning Easy (Vary 1 capacitor) Hard (Must vary 2 capacitors)
Stability Good Excellent (Best for RF)
Waveform Distorted (Harmonics) Pure Sine Wave
Application Radio Receiver Tuning Fixed Frequency RF Transmission

15
The Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)
Introduction: What is it?
Definition: An Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) is a high-gain, DC-coupled electronic
voltage amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output.

Construction of an OpAmp
+VCC -VEE

Intermediate
Input Differential Level Shifting
(Gain) Stage Output Stage Class
Amplifier + Stage Emitter
Common Emitter AB Push-Pull
Current Mirror Follower
(CE) Amplifier

V- Inverting V+ Non
Input Inverting
Input

Stage 1: Input Differential Amplifier

• Components: Transistors Q1–Q4 (Input) & Q5–Q7 (Active Load/Mirror).
• Function:
o Accepts the two input signals 𝑉𝑖𝑛+ and 𝑉𝑖𝑛−
o Provides High Input Impedance (so it doesn't load the source).
o Rejects noise using Common Mode Rejection.
o Uses a Current Mirror as an active load to convert the small differential
current into a usable voltage.
Stage 2: Intermediate (Gain) Stage
• Components: Transistor Q16 (Darlington Pair) & Q17.
• Function:
o This is typically a Common Emitter (CE) Amplifier.
o It provides the massive Voltage Gain (typically 200,000) required by the Op-
Amp.
o It also contains the Compensation Capacitor (30pF) to prevent oscillations
(make it stable).
Stage 3: Level Shifting Stage
• Components: Transistor Q16 (Emitter Follower).
• Function:
o Because the Gain Stage uses direct coupling, the DC voltage level at its output
is usually non-zero (e.g., it might sit at +10V).
o If we fed this directly to the output, 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 would never be 0V.
o This stage shifts the DC level down so that when Input = 0V, Output = 0V.
Stage 4: Output Stage
• Components: Transistors Q14 & Q20 (Class AB Push-Pull).
• Function:
o Current Amplification: It takes the voltage signal and gives it the "muscle"
(current) to drive a load (like a speaker or LED).
o Low Output Impedance: Ensures the output voltage doesn't drop when a
load is connected.
o Short Circuit Protection: Limits current if you accidentally touch the output
to ground.

16
 Why you have offset Null pin?
Offset Null (Pins 1 and 5)
These pins are used to fix a manufacturing imperfection inside the chip.
• The Problem (Input Offset Voltage): In an ideal Op-Amp, if you connect both inputs (Pin 2
and Pin 3) to Ground (0V), the Output should be exactly 0V. In reality, the internal
transistors (Q1 and Q2) are never perfectly identical. One might be slightly stronger than the
other. This imbalance causes a small error voltage (Offset Voltage) to appear at the output,
even with no input signal.
• The Solution (The "Tare" Button): Pins 1 and 5 allow you to manually balance the internal
currents. By connecting an external potentiometer, you can "tune" the circuit to force the output
to zero.
No Connection / NC (Pin 8)
This pin is exactly what it sounds like: It does nothing.
Why is it there?
Standardization: The industry standard package for chips is the 8-Pin DIP (Dual Inline
Package). It is a square with 4 legs on each side.
The 741 Op-Amp only required 7 functional connections.

1. Why DC Coupled?

17
Definition: "DC Coupled" (Direct Coupled) means there are no capacitors in the signal path
inside the chip. The amplifier can amplify frequencies all the way down to 0 Hz (DC).
Reason 1: Processing "Slow" Real-World Signals
Most signals in engineering are not music (AC); they are slow-changing or static values.
• Example: A temperature sensor in a boiler might output 2.5V and stay there for
hours.
• The Problem: If you used a standard AC-coupled amplifier (like in a stereo), the
internal capacitors would block this 2.5V DC signal. The output would drop to zero.
• The Op-Amp Solution: Because it is DC coupled, if the input is 2.5V, the output
stays at the amplified level forever. This allows it to measure temperature, pressure,
weight, and acceleration.
Reason 2: Performing Mathematics
Remember, this was designed for Analog Computers.
• To perform Integration, you need to handle constants.
• If you integrate a constant voltage (DC), you get a ramp.
• If the amplifier couldn't handle DC, the math would fail. You cannot build an
integrator or summer without DC coupling.

2. Why Differential Input?

Definition: The Op-Amp does not amplify a single voltage. It amplifies the difference
between two inputs:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴 × (𝑉𝑛𝑜𝑛−𝑖𝑛𝑣 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑣 )
Reason 1: The "Noise Killer" (Common Mode Rejection)
This is the single most brilliant feature of the Op-Amp.
• The Scenario: Imagine a long wire carrying a tiny signal from a sensor to the Op-
Amp. This wire acts like an antenna and picks up "hum" (50Hz noise) from the mains
electricity.
• The Trick: You run two wires close together.
o Wire A carries the Signal + Noise.
o Wire B is connected to ground but also picks up the same Noise.
• The Calculation: The Op-Amp subtracts them:
(𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 + 𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒) − (𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒) = 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙
• Result: The noise is cancelled out! This is called Common Mode Rejection. Without
this, modern electronics (especially medical ECGs) would be impossible because the
noise would drown out the signal.
Reason 2: Feedback Flexibility
Having two inputs gives you two ways to control the amplifier:
• Negative Feedback (Stability): Connect output to the Inverting (-) input. This calms
the amplifier down, controls the gain, and reduces distortion.
• Positive Feedback (Oscillation): Connect output to the Non-Inverting (+) input.
This makes the amplifier unstable, creating Oscillators and Schmidt Triggers.
3. How do we get high gain?
The secret to the massive gain of an Op-Amp (typically 100,000 to 1,000,000) lies in two
main design tricks: Active Loads and Cascading.
If you built an amplifier on a breadboard using resistors, you might get a gain of 10 or 100.
To get 1,000,000 inside a tiny chip, engineers use physics cheats.
1. The Main Trick: Active Loads (The "Current Source" Load)
In a standard amplifier, you use a Collector Resistor 𝑅𝐶 to convert the transistor's current
into output voltage.
• The Law: 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 ≈ Transconductance(𝑔𝑚 ) × Load Resistance(𝑅𝐶 )

18
 • The Problem: To get high gain, you need a huge 𝑅𝐶 (Mega-Ohms). But inside a
silicon chip, a Mega-Ohm resistor would be physically huge (larger than the entire
chip!).
{Some Points to remember about Load.
• 𝑅𝐶 (Collector Resistor) →The "Internal" Load.
o It is part of the Amplifier itself.
−𝑅
o Its job is to convert Current into Voltage. 𝐴𝑣 = ′𝐶
𝑟𝑒
o Without 𝑅𝐶 , the transistor would just pump current, but you would get zero voltage output.
• 𝑅𝐿 (Load Resistor) → The "External" Load.
o This is the customer of your signal.
o It represents whatever you are connecting to the amplifier: a Speaker, a Headphone, or the
−(𝑅𝐶 ∣∣𝑅𝐿 )
Input of the next amplifier stage. 𝐴𝑣 = ′
𝑟𝑒
The Solution:
Instead of a resistor, we use a Current Mirror (made of transistors) as the load.
• Why? A transistor in its active region acts like a Constant Current Source.
• The Physics: An ideal current source has infinite internal resistance (𝑟𝑜 ).
• The Result: To the signal, this "Active Load" looks like a resistor of hundreds of
Mega-Ohms, but physically it takes up the tiny space of just two transistors.
• Gain Boost: This trick alone boosts the gain from ~50 to ~5,000 in a single stage.
2. Cascading (Multi-Stage Design)
One stage is rarely enough. The Op-Amp connects multiple amplifiers in a chain (Series).
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴1 × 𝐴2 × 𝐴3
• Stage 1 (Differential Amplifier):
o Focuses on rejecting noise and having high input impedance.
o Gain is moderate (e.g., 500).
• Stage 2 (Intermediate/Gain Stage):
o Usually a Common Emitter amplifier with an Active Load.
o This stage provides the bulk of the voltage gain (e.g., 2,000).
• Stage 3 (Output Stage):
o Focuses on current, not voltage. Gain is approx 1.
o Low output impedance to drive loads.
Total Gain: 500 × 2000 × 1 = 1,000,000

4. Why the Name "Operational": It was originally named because it was used to perform
mathematical operations in early analog computers:
o Addition (Summing)
o Subtraction (Difference)
o Integration (Integrator)
o Differentiation (Differentiator)
• Symbol: A triangle pointing to the right.
o Two Inputs: Inverting (-) and Non-Inverting (+).
o One Output: (Vout).
o Power Supply: Dual supply (+VCC and -VEE) is standard.

5. Why Was It Invented?

Before digital computers (CPUs) existed, engineers needed a way to simulate real-world
systems (like rocket trajectories or suspension systems) without building them.
• The Solution: They built "Analog Computers" using vacuum tubes and later
transistors.

19
 • The Need: They needed a universal building block that could multiply voltages, add
signals, and integrate over time precisely, without the gain changing due to
temperature or manufacturing differences.
• The Innovation: The Op-Amp was designed to have massive gain (Open Loop
Gain) so that when you add Negative Feedback, the circuit's performance depends
only on the external resistors, not the transistor's internal properties.

6. The IC 741
• Who Invented It?
o The Pioneer: Bob Widlar (at Fairchild Semiconductor) created the first
successful IC op-amps (A702, A709) in the mid-1960s. He is considered the
"rock star" of analog design.
o The 741 Creator: Dave Fullagar (at Fairchild) designed the A741 in 1968.
• Why is the 741 Famous?
o Before the 741, op-amps were unstable and would oscillate (freak out) unless
you added complex external capacitors.
o Fullagar put a 30 pF capacitor inside the chip (Internal Compensation). This
made the 741 "stable" and incredibly easy to use. It became the standard for 50
years.
• Indian Context:
o In India, the 741 (often made by Texas Instruments, ST, or generic brands) is
the "ABCD" of electronics labs. Every engineering student in India starts with
this chip because it is robust (hard to kill), cheap (₹5 - ₹10), and available in
every market from Lamington Road (Mumbai) to Ritchie Street (Chennai).

7. What is Inside? (The Black Box Opened)

Even though it looks like a small black chip with 8 legs, inside it contains a complex circuit
of around 20-25 transistors.
The internal architecture has three main stages:
1. Input Stage (Differential Amplifier):
o Rejects noise (Common Mode Rejection).
o Provides high input impedance.
2. Intermediate Stage (Gain Stage):
o Boosts the voltage signal significantly.
o Usually a Common Emitter amplifier with an active load.
3. Output Stage (Push-Pull Amplifier):
o Provides low output impedance so it can drive loads (like LEDs or other
circuits).
o Protects against short circuits.

8. Applications (Where is it used?)

• Signal Conditioning: Amplifying weak signals from sensors (e.g., ECG machines
boosting heart signals, Thermocouples measuring temperature).
• Active Filters: Audio equalizers (Bass/Treble controls) use op-amps to filter
frequencies.
• Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs): The input buffer for almost every digital
sensor.
• Voltage Buffers: Isolating sensitive stages of a circuit so they don't load each other
down.

20
 • Comparators: Comparing two voltages (e.g., in a thermostat: "Is Temp > Set
Point?").

9. Current Status: Is it still used?

• The 741: It is technically obsolete for modern professional designs. It is slow (Slew
Rate = 0.5 V/μs) and noisy compared to modern chips.
• Modern Alternatives:
o TL072 / TL082: Used for audio (Low noise, FET input).
o LM358 / LM324: Single supply, extremely cheap, used in almost all
consumer appliances.
o OP07: Precision instrumentation (very low offset voltage).
• Why do we still teach the 741?
o It is the perfect "teaching tool." Its limitations (low speed, offset issues) are
distinct enough that students can easily measure and understand them in a lab.
If you learn to tame a 741, you can use any op-amp.

Op-Amp Basics: (Motivation) "Here is what we want to build."

⬇
Current Mirror: (Tool) "Here is a special trick to create constant current."
⬇
Differential Amplifier: (Assembly) "Let's use that trick to build the Op-Amp's input stage."

Current Mirror
A Current Mirror is primarily related to the Differential Amplifier and a non-negotiable
building block of the Differential Amplifier inside an Op-Amp.
1. The "Tail Current" Source (Biasing)
In a standard Differential Amplifier (like the input stage of a 741 Op-Amp), the two input
transistors (Q1 and Q2) share a common emitter connection.
• The Problem: If you use a simple resistor 𝑅𝐸 to bias them, the current 𝐼𝐸 changes
whenever the input voltage changes (Common Mode signal). This ruins the
amplifier's ability to reject noise.
• The Solution: You replace the resistor with a Current Mirror.
o The Current Mirror acts as a Constant Current Source.
o It forces the total current 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶1 + 𝐼𝐶2 to stay perfectly fixed, regardless of
the input voltage.
o Result: The Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) becomes almost
infinite (ideal), meaning it amplifies the difference signal perfectly and ignores
the noise.
2. Active Load (High Gain)
In modern IC design, Current Mirrors are also used on top of the differential pair as an
"Active Load".
• Instead of using passive Collector Resistors 𝑅𝐶 , the circuit uses a Current Mirror.
• Why? A transistor looks like a huge resistance (infinite impedance) to AC signals.
• Benefit: This trick creates an incredibly high Voltage Gain 𝐴𝑣 ≈ 𝑔𝑚 × 𝑟𝑜 without
needing physically large resistors on the silicon chip.

21
 Q10 Mirror Coupled
to Q1 ad Q2 Diff amp

This forces the 19

microA to flow
through regardless of
input

Secondary Mirror

These act as the

Active Load.

Master Current for

• The collectors of the input the whole circuit. Iref
transistors (Q1/Q3 and Q2/Q4) Mirror Transistor = 0.7 mA
connect to Q5 and Q6. with R4 copies I ref
• This mirror forces the currents in but scaled to 19
both sides of the differential microA
amplifier to be equal.
• Crucially, it converts the
Differential Output (Two wires)
into a Single-Ended Output (One
wire) to send to the next stage.

Basic Current Mirror

The Current Mirror (The "Magic" Resistor)
A Current Mirror is a transistor circuit that acts "smart."
• To DC (Biasing): It acts like a Small Resistor. It only drops about 0.7V - 2V, so it
fits easily inside a 5V supply.
• To AC (Signal): It acts like a Huge Resistor (Active resistance 𝑟𝑜 ). It resists changes
in current so strongly that it forces the voltage to swing wildly.
o This gives you Massive Gain (like a 100𝑘𝛺 resistor) without needing the
100V battery!
We use the Current Mirror because it is the only way to get High Gain inside a low-voltage
chip. It cheats Ohm's Law by having low DC resistance but high AC resistance.

Current Mirror is used as a Active Load

Why the "Load" (Next Stage) Resistance Changes
You also mentioned the load being "another amplifier."
If the next stage is a Transistor (BJT), its input is not a fixed resistor. It is a Diode (Base-
Emitter Junction).
• Non-Linearity: A diode's resistance is not constant.
o When the signal is low, resistance is High.
o When the signal is high, resistance drops drastically.
• The Consequence: If you drive this changing load with a simple resistor, the voltage
division ratio keeps changing, creating Distortion. A Current Mirror (Constant

22
 Current Source) is much better at driving non-linear loads because it delivers a set
amount of electrons regardless of the load's instantaneous resistance.

Copying a current using Base-Emitter Voltage 𝑉𝐵𝐸

think of this circuit in two halves:
• Left Side (): This side "measures" a current and converts it into a voltage (𝑉𝐵𝐸 ).
• Right Side (): This side takes that voltage and converts it back into a copy of the
current.

Step 1: Locking the Reference (The Command)

First, we set up the "Command" on the left side.
• Current flows through 𝑅 into 𝑄1 .
• Since 𝑄1 is a diode, it generates a specific voltage 𝑉𝐵𝐸 (approx 0.7V) to support that
current.
• Crucial Point: This 𝑉𝐵𝐸 is now Fixed (clamped). As long as 𝑉𝐶𝐶 and 𝑅 don't change,
𝑉𝐵𝐸 is constant.
Step 2: Copying to the Output (𝑄2 )
• This same fixed 𝑉𝐵𝐸 is applied to the base of 𝑄2 .
• The Equation of a BJT: The current flowing through a transistor depends
exponentially on 𝑉𝐵𝐸 , and barely at all on the Collector Voltage (𝑉𝐶𝐸 ).
𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑆 × 𝑒 𝑉𝑇
• Notice what is missing? The Load Resistance (𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 ) is NOT in this equation!
• Therefore, theoretically, the current 𝐼𝐿 depends only on 𝑉𝐵𝐸 . Since 𝑉𝐵𝐸 is locked, 𝐼𝐿 is
locked.

How Changes are "Nullified" (The Automatic Adjustment)

Let's imagine a real-world scenario where the Load changes and see how the circuit reacts.
Scenario:
You connect a Load Resistor (𝑅𝐿 ) of 1𝑘𝛺, and the mirror is pushing 1 mA.
Suddenly, you change the Load to 2𝑘𝛺 (Resistance doubles).
What usually happens (Ohm's Law):
If this were a simple voltage source, doubling resistance would cut the current in half
(𝐼 = 𝑉/𝑅).
What happens here (Constant Current Source):
1. The Threat: The Load resistance (𝑅𝐿 ) increases to 2𝑘𝛺. Ideally, the current wants to
drop.

23
 2. The "Sensor": The transistor 𝑄2 sees its Collector current trying to drop.
3. The Physics: But the Base Voltage (𝑉𝐵𝐸 ) is still pushing hard (fixed at 0.7V). The
"Valve" is still forced open to the 1 mA setting.
4. The "Nullification" (The Voltage Shift):
To force 1 mA through a bigger resistor, the circuit must change the voltage.
o Equation: 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝑄2_𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 + 𝑉𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
o 𝑉𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 increases (from 1𝑉 → 2𝑉 because 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅).
o Therefore, 𝑉𝑄2_𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 (𝑉𝐶𝐸 ) automatically shrinks to make room for the
Load's needs.
5. Result: The Transistor "eats" less voltage so the Load can have more. The current
stays exactly at 1 mA.

Mathematical Proof (Why Load doesn't matter)

We can define the total voltage in the output loop using Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL):
𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐿 · 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸2
Rearranging for Current:
𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐶𝐸2
𝐼𝐿 =
𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
• The Problem: In a normal circuit, if 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 goes up, 𝐼𝐿 goes down.
• The Solution: In this circuit, 𝑉𝐶𝐸2 is not constant. It is a flexible variable. 𝑉𝐶𝐸
o As 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 ↑ ...
o The transistor inherently adjusts 𝑉𝐶𝐸2 ↓ ...
o This keeps the ratio (and thus 𝐼𝐿 ) constant.
Summary
The circuit "nullifies" changes in the Load Resistance by automatically adjusting the
voltage drop across Transistor 𝑄2 (𝑉𝐶𝐸 ).
• If Load needs more voltage: 𝑄2 gives it up (lowers its own 𝑉𝐶𝐸 ).
• If Load needs less voltage: 𝑄2 absorbs the excess (raises its own 𝑉𝐶𝐸 ).
It acts like a smart, self-adjusting resistor to keep the flow steady.

Why VCE changes?

VCC is the budget. More than this we cannot have. We have to use all of it. IB is a fixed line in
the output characteristics.

𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸

𝑉𝐶𝐶 = (𝐼 × 𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 ) + 𝑉𝐶𝐸
I is Fixed: (e.g., 1mA, set by the current mirror).

24
Differential amplifier
It is called a Differential Amplifier because its primary job is to amplify the difference
between two input signals, while ignoring (rejecting) any voltage that is common to both.
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑑 × (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )
1. Differential Mode (Double-Ended Operation)
This is the "standard" or ideal way to use the amplifier.

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝐶
𝐴𝑑 = = 𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 or
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒
𝑟𝑒 Internal Emitter Resistance (≈ 26𝑚𝑉/𝐼𝐸 )
• The Setup: You apply two opposite signals to the inputs.
o Input 1: +𝑉𝑖𝑛 (Sine wave going up).
o Input 2: −𝑉𝑖𝑛 (Sine wave going down).
• The Action: Since the amplifier subtracts them:
(+𝑉𝑖𝑛 ) − (−𝑉𝑖𝑛 ) = 2𝑉𝑖𝑛
• Result: The amplifier sees a huge signal difference. The output voltage swings
maximumly.
• Use Case: This is how balanced audio cables (XLR microphones) work to eliminate
noise over long distances.
2. Common Mode
This mode is used to test the amplifier's quality (its ability to ignore noise).

• The Setup: You apply the exact same signal to both inputs.
o Input 1: +𝑉𝑖𝑛 .
o Input 2: −𝑉𝑖𝑛
• The Action: Theoretically, the difference is zero:
(+𝑉𝑖𝑛 ) − (+𝑉𝑖𝑛 ) = 0

25
 • Result: Ideally, the output should be Zero. In reality, a tiny bit of voltage leaks
through. The ability to block this is called CMRR (Common Mode Rejection
Ratio).
−𝛽𝑅𝐶 −𝑅𝐶
𝐴𝑐 = ≈
𝑟𝜋 + 2(𝛽 + 1)𝑅𝐸 2𝑅𝐸
(Since RE is usually very large, this gain is extremely small, typically << 1).

• Use Case: Removing 50Hz/60Hz mains hum from sensor wires.

A good amplifier is one that has high Differential Gain 𝐴𝑑 but very low Common Mode Gain
𝐴𝑐 ."
𝐴𝑑
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 =
𝐴𝑐
3. Single-Ended Mode
This is the most common way students use it in the lab (simple amplification).

𝑔𝑚 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶
𝐴𝑑 = or
2 2𝑟𝑒
• The Setup: You connect one input to Ground and drive the other input.
o Case A (Non-Inverting): Input 1 gets signal, Input 2 is Grounded. Output is
in-phase.
o Case B (Inverting): Input 1 is Grounded, Input 2 gets signal. Output is
inverted (180° phase shift).
• The Action: The difference is simply 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 0 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛
• Result: It acts like a normal amplifier. You get gain, but you lose the noise-canceling
benefits of the Differential Mode.

If you take the output from both collectors (Differential Output), the gain is double the gain
obtained if you take the output from just one collector (Single-Ended Output).

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Calculations
Problem Statement:
You are designing a control circuit for a heater. You have two voltage sensors, 𝑉𝐴 and 𝑉𝐵 . You
need to implement the following mathematical equation using a single Op-Amp:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 5(𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 )
If you choose the input resistors (𝑅1 ) to be 10𝑘𝛺, calculate the required values for the
Feedback Resistor (𝑅𝑓 ) and the resistor connected to ground (𝑅𝑔 ). Draw the circuit.
• Identify: This is a differential amplifier with Gain 𝐴𝑑 = 5.
𝑅𝑓
• Formula: 𝐴𝑑 =
𝑅1
𝑅𝑓
• Apply: 5 = 10𝑘𝛺 → 𝑅𝑓 = 50𝑘𝛺.
• Balance Rule: For a true subtractor, the resistor ratios must be balanced. Therefore,
𝑅𝑔 (on the non-inverting pin) must equal 𝑅𝑓 .
• Answer: 𝑅𝑓 = 50𝑘𝛺, 𝑅𝑔 = 50𝑘𝛺.

Problem 2: The "Broken Balance" (Component Tolerance)

Concept: Applying the general voltage formula when conditions are non-ideal (mismatched
resistors).
Problem Statement:
A student builds a Differential Amplifier intended to have a Gain of 1.
• Input Resistor (𝑅1 ) = 10𝑘𝛺
• Feedback Resistor (𝑅𝑓 ) = 10𝑘𝛺
• Non-Inverting Input Resistor (𝑅2 ) = 10𝑘𝛺
• Error: The student accidentally uses a 12𝑘𝛺 resistor for the ground connection (𝑅3 )
instead of 10𝑘𝛺.
If the input is a Common Mode signal of 5𝑉 applied to both inputs (𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 5𝑉),
calculate the voltage at the Output. (Hint: In an ideal circuit, it should be 0V).
Solution for Teachers:
• Identify: This is an unbalanced bridge. We must calculate 𝑉+ first, then use the non-
inverting gain formula.
• Step 1 (𝑉+ voltage): Voltage divider at non-inverting pin.
12𝑘
𝑉+ = 5𝑉 × = 5𝑉 × 0.545 = 2.727𝑉
10𝑘 + 12𝑘
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
• Step 2 (Amplification): The Op-Amp amplifies 𝑉+ by (1 + ) and subtracts 𝑉1 × .
𝑅1 𝑅1
10𝑘 10𝑘
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 2.727𝑉(1 + ) − 5𝑉( )
10𝑘 10𝑘
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 2.727𝑉(2) − 5𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 5.454𝑉 − 5𝑉 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟒𝐕
• Conclusion: The output is 0.454V (instead of 0V), showing that mismatch destroys
Common Mode Rejection.

Problem 3: The Strain Gauge Interface

Concept: Applying differential gain to a small sensor signal in a real-world context.
Problem Statement:
A bridge sensor on a beam outputs two voltages:
• No Load: 𝑉1 = 2.5𝑉, 𝑉2 = 2.5𝑉
• Full Load: 𝑉1 = 2.49𝑉, 𝑉2 = 2.51𝑉

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You need to amplify this small difference so that "Full Load" reads as 2𝑉 on your
microcontroller.
1. Calculate the Differential Gain (𝐴𝑑 ) required.
2. Select resistor values to achieve this, assuming the input resistance must be at least
100𝑘𝛺 to avoid loading the sensor.

• Step 1 (Find 𝛥𝑉):

Difference at full load = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = 2.51𝑉 − 2.49𝑉 = 0.02𝑉 (20mV).
• Step 2 (Apply Gain Formula):
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 × 𝛥𝑉
2𝑉 = 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 × 0.02𝑉
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 100
• Step 3 (Resistor Selection):
𝑅
We need 𝑅𝑓 = 100.
1
Constraint: Input resistance ≥ 100𝑘𝛺, so let 𝑅1 = 100𝑘𝛺.
𝑅𝑓 = 100 × 100𝑘𝛺 = 10𝑀𝛺
• Answer: Gain = 100. 𝑅1 = 100𝑘𝛺, 𝑅𝑓 = 10𝑀𝛺.

Problem 4: Common Mode Noise Rejection

Concept: Calculating the error introduced by poor CMRR.
Problem Statement:
An Op-Amp Differential Amplifier has a Differential Gain (𝐴𝑑 ) of 100 and a Common
Mode Gain (𝐴𝑐𝑚 ) of 0.1.
The input signal consists of a useful differential voltage of 10𝑚𝑉, but it is riding on top of a
2𝑉 50Hz noise signal (Common Mode).
Calculate the total output voltage and determine if the noise is significant.
Solution for Teachers:
• Formula: 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (𝐴𝑑 × 𝑉𝑑 ) + (𝐴𝑐𝑚 × 𝑉𝑐𝑚 )
• Step 1 (Signal Output):
𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑔 = 100 × 10𝑚𝑉 = 1000𝑚𝑉 = 𝟏𝐕
• Step 2 (Noise Output):
𝑉𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 0.1 × 2𝑉 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝐕
• Step 3 (Total):
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1𝑉 + 0.2𝑉 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝐕
• Conclusion: The output is 1.2V. The noise contributes 20% error to the signal, which
is significant.

Problem 1: The "Noisy Factory" Scenario

Concept: Calculating the exact output error caused by a finite CMRR.
Problem Statement:
You are using a Differential Amplifier to measure the voltage from a sensor in a noisy factory.
• The sensor provides a valid differential signal (𝑉𝑑 ) of 2 mV.
• However, due to nearby heavy machinery, a massive common-mode noise (𝑉𝑐𝑚 ) of
500 mV (at 50 Hz) is induced on both wires.
• The Amplifier has a Differential Gain (𝐴𝑑 ) of 2000.
• The datasheet states the CMRR is 80 dB.
Calculate:

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 1. The output voltage due to the Signal.
2. The output voltage due to the Noise.
3. The Total Output Voltage and the percentage of error.
Solution:
Step 1: Convert CMRR from dB to Linear Ratio
The formula is: CMRRdB = 20log 10 (CMRR)
80 = 20log 10 (CMRR)
4 = log 10 (CMRR)
CMRR = 104 = 10,000
Step 2: Find Common Mode Gain (𝐴𝑐𝑚 )
Since CMRR = 𝐴𝑑 /𝐴𝑐𝑚 :
2000
10,000 =
𝐴𝑐𝑚
2000
𝐴𝑐𝑚 = = 𝟎. 𝟐
10,000
(Note: This means the amplifier actually attenuates the noise, which is good!)
Step 3: Calculate Output Components
• Signal Output: 𝑉𝑜 (sig) = 𝐴𝑑 × 𝑉𝑑 = 2000 × 2 mV = 4000 mV = 𝟒 𝐕.
• Noise Output: 𝑉𝑜 (noise) = 𝐴𝑐𝑚 × 𝑉𝑐𝑚 = 0.2 × 500 mV = 100 mV = 𝟎. 𝟏 𝐕.
Step 4: Total & Error
• Total Output: 4 V + 0.1 V = 𝟒. 𝟏 𝐕.
• Percentage Error: (0.1 V/4 V) × 100 = 𝟐. 𝟓%.

Problem 2: The "ECG Design" Challenge

Concept: Working backwards to determine the required amplifier specifications.
Problem Statement:
You are designing an Electrocardiogram (ECG) machine.
• The heart signal (𝑉𝑑 ) is extremely weak: 1 mV.
• The patient's body acts like an antenna and picks up 2 V of Common Mode noise
(𝑉𝑐𝑚 ) from the room's power lines.
• Requirement: For the doctor to read the chart accurately, the noise at the output must
be less than 1% of the signal at the output.
Calculate the Minimum CMRR (in dB) required for this amplifier.
Solution:
Step 1: Set up the Inequality
We require the Output Noise to be less than 1% of the Output Signal.
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (noise) < 0.01 × 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (signal)
Step 2: Substitute Formulas
(𝐴𝑐𝑚 × 𝑉𝑐𝑚 ) < 0.01 × (𝐴𝑑 × 𝑉𝑑 )
Rearrange to solve for the ratio 𝐴𝑑 /𝐴𝑐𝑚 (which is CMRR):
𝐴𝑑 𝑉𝑐𝑚
>
𝐴𝑐𝑚 0.01 × 𝑉𝑑
Step 3: Plug in Values
2V
CMRR >
0.01 × 0.001 V
2
CMRR >
0.00001
CMRR > 200,000
Step 4: Convert to Decibels

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 CMRRdB = 20log 10 (200,000)
CMRRdB ≈ 20 × 5.3
𝐂𝐌𝐑𝐑 ≈ 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝐝𝐁
Conclusion: You cannot use a standard Op-Amp (typically 90dB). You must select a high-
precision Instrumentation Amplifier with CMRR > 106dB.

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