📚 ATOMIC STRUCTURE COMPLETE NOTES (POINT-WISE)
(Quantum Mechanical Model → Energies of Orbitals)
1. Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
Need for Quantum Mechanical Model
Classical mechanics (Newton's laws) explains macroscopic objects.
It fails for microscopic particles like electrons and atoms.
Electrons exhibit dual nature:
o Particle nature
o Wave nature
Electrons obey Heisenberg's uncertainty principle.
Hence Quantum Mechanics was developed.
Quantum Mechanics
Deals with microscopic particles.
Developed independently by:
o Werner Heisenberg
o Erwin Schrödinger (1926)
Schrödinger Equation
^
H ψ=Eψ
Here:
Ĥ = Hamiltonian operator
ψ = Wave function
E = Energy of electron
Important Points
ψ has no physical significance.
ψ² or |ψ|² has physical significance.
ψ² gives probability density.
Quantum mechanics gives probability of finding electron, not exact position.
Electron has no definite path.
Orbital
Region around nucleus where probability of finding electron is maximum.
About 90% probability lies inside the orbital.
2. Hydrogen Atom and Schrödinger Equation
Hydrogen atom
Contains one electron.
It is a one-electron system.
Hydrogen-like species
He⁺
Li²⁺
Be³⁺
Solving Schrödinger equation gives
Quantized energy levels.
Wave functions (ψ).
Three quantum numbers:
o n
o l
o ml
Atomic Orbitals
Wave functions obtained are called atomic orbitals.
Examples:
o 1s
o 2s
o 2p
o 3s
o 3p
o 3d
Important Points
ψ has no physical meaning.
ψ² gives probability density.
Orbitals are regions of maximum probability.
Hydrogen atom spectrum is explained successfully by quantum mechanics.
3. Quantum Numbers
There are four quantum numbers:
1. Principal Quantum Number (n)
2. Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
4. Spin Quantum Number (ms)
4. Principal Quantum Number (n)
Represents
Shell
Size of orbital
Energy of orbital (mainly)
Possible values
n=1 ,2 , 3 , 4 , ...
Shell names
n=1 → K
n=2 → L
n=3 → M
n=4 → N
Important Points
Size increases with increase in n.
Energy increases with increase in n.
Electron moves farther from nucleus with increasing n.
Number of subshells
Formula:
¿n
Number of orbitals in nth shell
Formula:
2
¿n
Maximum electrons in nth shell
Formula:
2
¿2n
5. Azimuthal Quantum Number (l)
Represents
Shape of orbital
Possible values
l=0 to (n−1)
Orbital symbols
l=0 → s
l=1 → p
l=2 → d
l=3 → f
Number of subshells in a shell
Equal to n.
Examples
n=1
l=0
1s
n=2
l=0,1
2s,2p
n=3
l=0,1,2
3s,3p,3d
n=4
l=0,1,2,3
4s,4p,4d,4f
6. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
Represents
Orientation of orbital in space.
Possible values
−l to +l
Number of orbitals
Formula
2 l+ 1
For s orbital
l=0
ml=0
Number of orbitals=1
For p orbital
l=1
ml=-1,0,+1
Number of orbitals=3
For d orbital
l=2
ml=-2,-1,0,+1,+2
Number of orbitals=5
For f orbital
l=3
ml=-3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2,+3
Number of orbitals=7
7. Spin Quantum Number (ms)
Represents
Spin of electron.
Possible values
+1 1
,−
2 2
Representation
↑ = +1/2
↓ = -1/2
Important Points
One orbital can accommodate maximum two electrons.
These electrons must have opposite spins.
8. Shapes of Orbitals
s-Orbital
Value of l
l=0
Shape
Spherical
Examples
1s
2s
3s
4s
Important Points
All s orbitals are spherical.
Size increases with n.
Order:
1 s <2 s <3 s <4 s
p-Orbital
Value of l
l=1
Shape
Dumbbell shaped
Types
px
py
pz
Important Points
Three p orbitals are mutually perpendicular.
Same size and energy.
Differ only in orientation.
d-Orbitals
Value of l
l=2
Shape
Clover leaf
Types
dxy
dyz
dxz
dx²-y²
dz²
Important Points
Five d orbitals.
Same energy.
Different orientations.
f-Orbitals
Value of l
l=3
Shape
Complex
Number of orbitals
Seven
9. Wave Function
Has no physical significance.
ψ²
Gives probability density.
Gives probability of finding electron.
10. Nodes
Node
Region where probability of finding electron is zero.
Types of Nodes
1. Radial Nodes
2. Angular Nodes
Angular Nodes
Formula
¿l
Values
s orbital → 0
p orbital → 1
d orbital → 2
f orbital → 3
Radial Nodes
Formula
¿ n−l−1
Total Nodes
Formula
¿ n−1
Relation
Total Nodes =Angular Nodes +Radial Nodes
Examples
1s
n=1
l=0
Angular nodes =0
Radial nodes =0
Total nodes =0
2s
n=2
l=0
Angular nodes =0
Radial nodes =1
Total nodes =1
2p
n=2
l=1
Angular nodes =1
Radial nodes =0
Total nodes =1
3p
n=3
l=1
Angular nodes =1
Radial nodes =1
Total nodes =2
3d
n=3
l=2
Angular nodes =2
Radial nodes =0
Total nodes =2
11. Energies of Orbitals
Hydrogen Atom
Energy depends only on n.
Energy order:
1 s <2 s=2 p <3 s=3 p=3 d< 4 s=4 p=4 d=4 f
Degenerate Orbitals
Orbitals having same energy.
Examples:
2s=2p
3s=3p=3d
Ground State
Lowest energy state.
1s orbital.
Excited State
Electron present in higher orbitals.
Examples:
2s
2p
3s
Multi-Electron Atoms
Energy depends on
n
l
Cause
Electron-electron repulsion.
Energy order within same shell
s< p< d< f
Examples
2 s <2 p3 s <3 p<3 d
Shielding Effect
Inner electrons shield outer electrons from nucleus.
Outer electrons do not experience full nuclear charge.
Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff)
Definition
Actual positive charge felt by outer electron.
Formula
Z eff =Z−shielding
Penetration Power
Order
s> p> d> f
Energy Order
s< p< d< f
(n+l) Rule
Rule 1
Lower (n+l)
Lower energy
Rule 2
If (n+l) values are same
Orbital with lower n has lower energy.
Example
4s and 3d
4s
n+l=4
3d
n+l=5
Therefore
4 s <3 d
3p and 4s
3p
n+l=4
4s
n+l=4
Same value.
Lower n wins.
Therefore
3 p<4 s
IMPORTANT ORDERS
Shape
s → Spherical
p → Dumbbell
d → Clover leaf
f → Complex
Angular Nodes
s< p< d< f
0<1<2<3
Number of Orbitals
1<3<5< 7
Penetration Power
s> p> d> f
Shielding Effect
s> p> d> f
Energy Order
s< p< d< f
Size
1 s <2 s <3 s <4 s2 p <3 p <4 p
MOST IMPORTANT FORMULAS
Number of subshells
¿n
Number of orbitals in subshell
2 l+ 1
Total orbitals in nth shell
2
¿n
Maximum electrons in nth shell
2
¿2n
Angular nodes
¿l
Radial nodes
¿ n−l−1
Total nodes
¿ n−1
Effective nuclear charge
Z eff =Z−Shielding
MEMORY TRICKS
Quantum Numbers
n → Name (Shell)
l → Look (Shape)
ml → Location (Orientation)
ms → Spin
spdf
0123
Shapes
s → Sphere ⚽
p → Dumbbell 🎈🎈
d → Clover 🍀
f → Complex