80

QUESTIONS
to MASTER

Python
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 Question 1

What is Python?

List some popular applications of Python in the world of

technology. Python is a widely-used general-purpose,

high-level programming language. It was created by Guido

van Rossum in 1991 and further developed by the Python

Software Foundation. It was designed with an emphasis on

code readability, and its syntax allows programmers to

express their concepts in fewer lines of code.

It is used for:

System Scripting

Web Development

Game Development

Software Development

Complex Mathematics

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Question 2

What are the benefits of using Python

language as a tool in the present scenario?

The following are the benefits of using Python language

System Scripting

Web Development

Game Development

Software Development

Complex Mathematics

Complex Mathematics

Complex Mathematics

Complex Mathematics

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Question 3

Is Python a compiled language or an

interpreted language?

Actually, Python is a partially compiled language and

partially interpreted language. The compilation part is

done first when we execute our code and this will generate

byte code internally. This byte code gets converted by the

Python virtual machine(p.v.m) according to the underlying

platform(machine+operating system).

Question 4

What does the ‘#’ Symbol in Python?

‘#’ is used to comment on everything that comes after on

the line.

Question 5

What is the difference between a Mutable

data type and an Immutable data type?

Mutable data types can be edited i.e., they can change

at runtime. Eg – List, Dictionary, etc.

Immutable data types can not be edited i.e., they can not

change at runtime. Eg – String, Tuple, etc.

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Question 6

How are arguments passed by value or by

reference in Python?

Everything in Python is an object and all variables hold

references to the objects. The reference values are

according to the functions; as a result, you cannot

change the value of the references. However, you can

change the objects if they are mutable.

Question 7

What is the difference between a Set and

Dictionary?

The set is an unordered collection of data types that is

iterable, mutable and has no duplicate elements.

A dictionary in Python is an unordered collection of data

values, used to store data values like a map.

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Question 8

What is List Comprehension? Give an

Example.

List comprehension is a syntax construction to ease the

creation of a list based on an existing iterable.

For example -

my_list = [i for i in range(1, 10)]

Question 9

What is a lambda function?

A lambda function is an anonymous function. This function

can have any number of parameters but can have just one

statement.

For example -

a = lambda x, y : x*y

print(a(7, 19))

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Question 10

What is a pass in Python?

Pass means performing no operation or in other words, it

is a placeholder in the compound statement, where there

should be a blank left and nothing has to be written there.

Question 11

What is the difference between / and // in

Python?

// represents floor division whereas / represents precise

division.

5//2 = 2

5/2 = 2.5

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Question 12

How is Exceptional handling done in Python?

There are 3 main keywords i.e. try, except, and finally

which are used to catch exceptions and handle the

recovering mechanism accordingly. Try is the block of a

code that is monitored for errors. Except the block gets

executed when an error occurs.

The beauty of the final block is to execute the code after

trying for an error. This block gets executed irrespective of

whether an error occurred or not. Finally block is used to

do the required cleanup activities of objects/variables.

Question 13

What is a swapcase function in Python?

It is a string’s function that converts all uppercase

characters into lowercase and vice versa. It is used to

alter the existing case of the string. This method creates

a copy of the string which contains all the characters in

the swap case.

string = "Hello Pune"

[Link]() ---> "hELLO pUNE"

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Question 14

Difference between for loop and while loop in

Python

The “for” Loop is generally used to iterate through the

elements of various collection types such as List, Tuple,

Set, and Dictionary. Developers use a “for” loop where

they have both the conditions start and the end.

The “while” loop is the actual looping feature that is used

in any other programming language. Programmers use a

Python while loop where they just have the end

conditions.

Question 15

Can we Pass a function as an argument in

Python?

Yes, Several arguments can be passed to a function,

including objects, variables (of the same or distinct

data types), and functions. Functions can be passed as

parameters to other functions because they are

objects. Higher-order functions are functions that can

take other functions as arguments.

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Question 16

What are *args and *kwargs?

To pass a variable number of arguments to a function

in Python, use the special syntax *args and **kwargs in

the function specification. It is used to pass a variable-

length, keyword-free argument list. By using the *, the

variable we associate with the * becomes iterable,

allowing you to do operations on it such as iterating

over it and using higher-order operations like map and

filter.

Question 17

Is Indentation Required in Python?

Yes, indentation is required in Python. A Python

interpreter can be informed that a group of statements

belongs to a specific block of code by using Python

indentation. Indentations make the code easy to read

for developers in all programming languages but in

Python, it is very important to indent the code in a

specific order.

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Question 18

What is Scope in Python?

The location where we can find a variable and also

access it if required is called the scope of a variable.

Local variable: Local variables are those that are

initialized within a function and are unique to that

function. It cannot be accessed outside of the function.

Global variables: Global variables are the ones that are

defined and declared outside any function and are not

specified to any function.

Module-level scope: It refers to the global objects of the

current module accessible in the program.

Outermost scope: It refers to any built-in names that the

program can call. The name referenced is located last

among the objects in this scope.

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Question 19

What is docstring in Python?

Python documentation strings (or docstrings) provide a

convenient way of associating documentation with

Python modules, functions, classes, and methods.

Declaring Docstrings: The docstrings are declared using

”’triple single quotes”’ or “””triple double quotes””” just

below the class, method, or function declaration. All

functions should have a docstring.

Accessing Docstrings: The docstrings can be accessed

using the __doc__ method of the object or using the

help function.

Question 20

What is a dynamically typed language?

Typed languages are the languages in which we define the type

of data type and it will be known by the machine at the

compile-time or at runtime. Typed languages can be classified

into two categories:

Statically typed languages: In this type of language, the

data type of a variable is known at the compile time

which means the programmer has to specify the data

type of a variable at the time of its declaration.

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 Dynamically typed languages: These are the languages

that do not require any pre-defined data type for any

variable as it is interpreted at runtime by the machine

itself. In these languages, interpreters assign the data

type to a variable at runtime depending on its value.

Question 21

What is a break, continue, and pass in

Python?

The break statement is used to terminate the loop or

statement in which it is present. After that, the control

will pass to the statements that are present after the

break statement, if available.

Continue is also a loop control statement just like the

break statement. The continue statement is opposite to

that of the break statement, instead of terminating the

loop, it forces the execution of the next iteration of the

loop.

Pass means performing no operation or in other words, it

is a placeholder in the compound statement, where there

should be a blank left and nothing has to be written there.

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Question 22

What are Built-in data types in Python?

The following are the standard or built-in data types in Python:

Numeric: The numeric data type in Python represents

the data that has a numeric value. A numeric value can

be an integer, a floating number, a Boolean, or even a

complex number.

Sequence Type: The sequence Data Type in Python is

the ordered collection of similar or different data types.

There are several sequence types in Python:

String

List

Tuple

Dictionary

Range

Mapping Types: In Python, hashable data can be mapped

to random objects using a mapping object. There is

currently only one common mapping type, the dictionary,

and mapping objects are mutable.

Set: In Python, a Set is an unordered collection of data

types that is iterable, mutable, and has no duplicate

elements. The order of elements in a set is undefined

though it may consist of various elements.

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Question 23

How do you floor a number in Python?

The Python math module includes a method that can be

used to calculate the floor of a number. floor() method

in Python returns the floor of x i.e., the largest integer not

greater than x. ceil(x) in Python returns a ceiling value of

x i.e., the smallest integer greater than or equal to x.

Question 24

What is the difference between xrange and

range functions?

range() and xrange() are two functions that could be

used to iterate a certain number of times in for loops in

Python. In Python 3, there is no xrange, but the range

function behaves like xrange in Python 2.

range() – This returns a list of numbers created using

the range() function.

xrange() – This function returns the generator object

that can be used to display numbers only by looping.

The only particular range is displayed on demand and

hence called lazy evaluation.

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Question 25

What is Dictionary Comprehension? Give an

Example

Dictionary Comprehension is a syntax construction to

ease the creation of a dictionary based on the existing

iterable.

my_dict = {i:1+7 for i in range(1, 10)}

Question 26

Is Tuple Comprehension? If yes, how, and if

not why?

(i for i in (1, 2, 3))

Tuple comprehension is not possible in Python because

it will end up in a generator, not a tuple comprehension.

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Question 27

Differentiate between List and Tuple?

Let’s analyze the differences between List and Tuple:

LISTS TUPLES

Lists are Mutable data types. Tuples are Immutable data

types.

Lists consume more memory

Tuple consumes less memory

as compared to the list

The list is better for

performing operations, such

A Tuple data type is appropriate
as insertion and deletion.
for accessing the elements

The implication of iterations is

The implication of iterations is
Time-consuming
comparatively Faster

Question 28

What is the difference between a shallow

copy and a deep copy?

Shallow copy is used when a new instance type gets

created and it keeps values that are copied whereas

deep copy stores values that are already copied. A

shallow copy has faster program execution whereas a

deep copy makes it slow.

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Question 29

Which sorting technique is used by sort()

and sorted() functions of python?

Python uses the Tim Sort algorithm for sorting. It’s a

stable sorting whose worst case is O(N log N). It’s a

hybrid sorting algorithm, derived from merge sort and

insertion sort, designed to perform well on many kinds

of real-world data.

Question 30

What are Decorators?

Decorators in simple terms is the specific change that

we make in Python syntax to alter functions easily.

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Question 31

How do you debug a Python program?

In Python, we can use the debugger pdb for debugging

the code. To start debugging we have to enter the

following lines on the top of a Python script.

import pdb

pdb.set_trace()

After adding these lines, our code runs in debug mode.

Now we can usecommands like breakpoint, step

through, step into etc for debugging.

By using this command we can debug a Python

program:

$ python -m pdb [Link]

Question 32

What are Iterators in Python?

In Python, iterators are used to iterate a group of

elements, containers like a list. Iterators are collections of

items, and they can be a list, tuples, or a dictionary.

Python iterator implements __itr__ and the next()

method to iterate the stored elements. We generally use

loops to iterate over the collections (list, tuple) in Python.

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Question 33

What are Generators in Python?

In Python, the generator is a way that specifies how to

implement iterators. It is a normal function except that it

yields expression in the function. It does not implement

__itr__ and next() method and reduces other

overheads as well.

If a function contains at least a yield statement, it

becomes a generator. The yield keyword pauses the

current execution by saving its states and then resumes

from the same when

required.

Question 34

Does Python support multiple Inheritance?

Python does support multiple inheritances, unlike Java.

Multiple inheritances mean that a class

can be derived from more than one parent class.

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Question 35

What is Polymorphism and encapsulation in

Python?

Polymorphism means the ability to take multiple forms.

So, for instance, if the parent class has a method named

ABC then the child class also can have a method with the

same name ABC having its own parameters and

variables. Python allows polymorphism.

Encapsulation means binding the code and the data

together. A Python class is an example of encapsulation.

Question 36

What is garbage collection in Python?

A garbage collection in Python manages the memory

automatically and heap allocation. In simpler terms,

the process of automatic deletion of unwanted or

unused objects to free the memory is called garbage

collection in Python.

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Question 37

How do you do data abstraction in Python?

Data Abstraction is providing only the required details

and hides the implementation from the world. It can be

achieved in Python by using interfaces and abstract

classes.

Question 38

How is memory management done in

Python?

Python uses its private heap space to manage the

memory. Basically, all the objects and data structures are

stored in the private heap space. Even the programmer

can not access this private space as the interpreter takes

care of this space. Python also has an inbuilt garbage

collector, which recycles all the unused memory and frees

the memory and makes it available to the heap

space.

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Question 39

How to delete a file using Python?

We can delete a file using Python by following

approaches:

[Link]()

[Link]()

Question 40

What is slicing in Python?

Python Slicing is a string operation for extracting a part

of the string, or some part of a list. With this operator,

one can specify where to start the slicing, where to end,

and specify the step. List slicing returns a new list from

the existing list.

Lst[ Initial : End : IndexJump ]

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Question 41

What is a namespace in Python?

A namespace is a naming system used to make sure

that names are unique to avoid naming conflicts.

Question 42

What is PIP?

PIP is an acronym for Python Installer Package which

provides a seamless interface to install various Python

modules. It is a command-line tool that can search for

packages over the internet and install them without

any user interaction.

Question 43

What is a zip function?

Python zip() function returns a zip object, which maps a

similar index of multiple containers. It takes an iterable,

converts it into an iterator and aggregates the

elements based on iterables passed. It returns an

iterator of tuples.

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Question 44

What are Pickling and Unpickling?

The Pickle module accepts any Python object and

converts it into a string representation and dumps it

into a file by using the dump function, this process is

called pickling.

While the process of retrieving original Python objects

from the stored string representation is called

unpickling. Python has a module named pickle. This

module has the implementation of a powerful

algorithm for serialization and deserialization of Python

object structure.

Question 45

How can we do Functional programming in

Python?

In Functional Programming, we decompose a program

into functions. These functions take input and after

processing give an output. The function does not

maintain any state.

Python provides built-in functions that can be used for

Functional programming.

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Some of these functions are:

Map()

reduce()

filter()

Event iterators and generators can be used for

Functional programming in Python.

Question 46

What is __init__() in Python?

Equivalent to constructors in OOP terminology,

__init__ is a reserved method in Python classes. The

__init__ method is called automatically whenever a

new object is initiated. This method allocates memory

to the new object as soon as it is created. This method

can also be used to initialize variables.

Question 47

Write a code to display the current time?

current_time= [Link]()

print (“Current time is”, current_time)

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Question 48

What are Access Specifiers in Python?

Python uses the ‘_’ symbol to determine the access

control for a specific data member or a member

function of a class. A Class in Python has three types of

Python access modifiers:

Public Access Modifier: The members of a class that are

declared public are easily accessible from any part of the

program. All data members and member functions of a

class are public by default.

Protected Access Modifier: The members of a class that

are declared public are easily accessible from any part of

the program. All data members and member functions of

a class are public by default.

Private Access Modifier: The members of a class that

are declared private are accessible within the class only,

the private access modifier is the most secure access

modifier. Data members of a class are declared private

by adding a double underscore ‘__’ symbol before the

data member of that class.

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Question 49

What are unit tests in Python?

The Pickle module accepts any Python object and

converts it into a string representation and dumps it

into a file by using the dump function, this process is

called pickling.

While the process of retrieving original Python objects

from the stored string representation is called

unpickling. Python has a module named pickle. This

module has the implementation of a powerful

algorithm for serialization and deserialization of Python

object structure.

Question 50

Python Global Interpreter Lock (GIL)?

Python Global Interpreter Lock (GIL) is a type of process

lock that is used by Python whenever it deals with

processes. Generally, Python only uses only one thread to

execute the set of written statements. The performance of

the single-threaded process and the multi-threaded

process will be the same in Python and this is because of

GIL in Python. We can not achieve multithreading in

Python because we have a global interpreter lock that

restricts the threads and works as a single thread.

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Question 51

What are Function Annotations in Python?

Function Annotation is a feature that allows you to add

metadata to function parameters and return values. This

way you can specify the input type of the function

parameters and the return type of the value the function

returns.

Function annotations are arbitrary Python expressions

that are associated with various parts of functions. These

expressions are evaluated at compile time and have no

life in Python’s runtime environment. Python does not

attach any meaning to these annotations. They take life

when interpreted by third-party libraries, for example,

mypy.

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Question 52

What are Exception Groups in Python?

The ExceptionGroup can be handled using a new except*

syntax. The * symbol indicates that multiple exceptions

can be handled by each except* clause.

ExceptionGroup is a collection/group of different kinds of

Exception. Without creating Multiple Exceptions we can

group together different Exceptions which we can later

fetch one by one whenever necessary, the order in which

the Exceptions are stored in the Exception Group doesn’t

matter while calling them.

try:

raise ExceptionGroup('Example ExceptionGroup', (

TypeError('Example TypeError'),

ValueError('Example ValueError'),

KeyError('Example KeyError'),

AttributeError('Example AttributeError')

))

except* TypeError:

...

except* ValueError as e:

...

except* (KeyError, AttributeError) as e:

...

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Question 53

What is Python Switch Statement

Python has implemented a switch case feature called

“structural pattern matching”. You can implement this

feature with the match and case keywords. Note that

the underscore symbol is what you use to define a

default case for the switch statement in Python.

Note: Before Python 3.10 Python didn't support match

Statements.

match term:

case pattern-1:

action-1

case pattern-2:

action-2

case pattern-3:

action-3

case _:

action-default

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Question 54

What is the improvement in the enumerate()

function of Python?

In Python, enumerate() function is an improvement

over regular iteration.

The enumerate() function returns an iterator that gives

(0, item[0]).

>>> thelist=['a','b']

>>> for i,j in enumerate(thelist):

... print i,j

...

0 a

1 b

Question 55

uses and benefits of python

High readability

reduces cost of program maintenance

open source

support third party packages modularity

code reverse.

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Question 56

Dynamically typed language?

Typing refers to type checking in programming

language storing type language such as a Python 1 + 2

will result in type error since this language don't allow for

“type coercion” (implicit conversion of data types) on

the other hand a weekly type data weakly typed

language such as JS will simply output 12 to a result Two

stage of a Typing-checking

Static- data types are checked before execution.

dynamic- data type are checked during execution

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Question 57

What is self in code?

self represents the instances of class . These handy

keywords allow you to access the variables, attributes

and methods of a defined class in Python. Self

parameter doesn't have to be you named ‘self’ as you

can call it by any other home however the self

parameter must always be the first parameter of any

class function regardless of a name choose chosen so

instead of selfie you call you ‘mine’ or ‘ours’ or anything

else

Class address:

def __init__(mine,street,number):

[Link] = street

[Link] = number

Def myfunc(abc):

print(“my address is “ abc,street)

P1 = address(“Albert street”,20)

[Link]()

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Question 58

What is comprehension in Python?

It provide us with the short and a concise way to

construct a new sequences

[such as a list set dictionary etc]

using sequences which have been already defined

Python supports four types of a comprehension

list comprehension

dictionary comprehension

set comprehension

generator comprehension

A. List comprehension-

it provide an elegant way to create a new [Link]

following is the basic structure of a list comprehension

output list= [ output_execution for var in input_list if

(var satisfy this condition)]

Note - list comprehension may or may not contain and if

condition list comprehension can contain multiple for

nested list conference comprehension

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1. example one suppose we want to create an output list

which contains only the even number which are present

in the input list let's see how to do this using for loops and

list comprehension and decide which method suits better

#without using list comprehension

Input_list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7,7]

Output_list=[ ]

#look for constructing output

for var in input_list:

If var % 2 ==0:

Output_list.append(var)

print(“Output list using for loop, output_list)

Output = output list using for loop : [2 4 4 6]

2. Suppose we want to create an output list which

contains squares of all the numbers from 1 to 9 let's see

how to do this using for loops and list comprehension

# Constructing output list using for loop

output list is equal to[]

for war in range(1, 10):

output_list.append(var ** 2):

print(“Output list using for loops: “,output_list )

output = output list using for loop : [1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81]

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 #using list comprehension

list_using_comprehension=[ var * 2 for var in

range(1,10)]

print(“Output list using for loops: “,

list_using_comprehension )

output = output list using for comprehension:

[1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81]

B. Dictionary comprehension

Extending the idea of list comprehensions, we can also

create a dictionary using dictionary comprehensions.

The basic structure of a dictionary comprehension looks

like below.

output_dict = {key:value for (key, value) in

iterable if (key, value satisfy this condition)}

Example #1: Suppose we want to create an output

dictionary which contains only the odd numbers that

are present in the input list as keys and their cubes as

values. Let’s see how to do this using for loops and

dictionary comprehension.

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 input_list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]

output_dict = {}

# Using loop for constructing output dictionary

for var in input_list:

if var % 2 != 0:

output_dict[var] = var**3

print("Output Dictionary using for loop:", output_dict )

Output: Output Dictionary using for loop:

{1: 1, 3: 27, 5: 125, 7: 343}

# Using Dictionary comprehensions

# for constructing output dictionary

input_list = [1,2,3,4,5,6,7]

dict_using_comp = {var:var ** 3 for var in input_list if

var % 2 != 0}

print("Output Dictionary using dictionary

comprehensions:", dict_using_comp)

Output: Output Dictionary using dictionary

comprehensions: {1: 1, 3: 27, 5: 125, 7: 343}

Example #2: Given two lists containing the names of

states and their corresponding capitals, construct a

dictionary which maps the states with their respective

capitals. Let’s see how to do this using for loops and

dictionary comprehension.

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 state = ['Gujarat', 'Maharashtra', 'Rajasthan']

capital = ['Gandhinagar', 'Mumbai', 'Jaipur']

output_dict = {}

# Using loop for constructing output dictionary

for (key, value) in zip(state, capital):

output_dict[key] = value

print("Output Dictionary using for loop:", output_dict)

Output Output Dictionary using for loop: {'Gujarat':

'Gandhinagar', 'Maharashtra': 'Mumbai', 'Rajasthan': 'Jaipur'}

# Using Dictionary comprehensions

# for constructing output dictionary

state = ['Gujarat', 'Maharashtra', 'Rajasthan']

capital = ['Gandhinagar', 'Mumbai', 'Jaipur']

dict_using_comp = {key:value for (key, value) in

zip(state, capital)}

print("Output Dictionary using dictionary

comprehensions:", dict_using_comp)

Output: Output Dictionary using dictionary

comprehensions: {'Rajasthan': 'Jaipur', 'Maharashtra':

'Mumbai', 'Gujarat': 'Gandhinagar'}

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C. set comprehension:

Set comprehensions are pretty similar to list

comprehensions. The only difference between them is that

set comprehensions use curly brackets { }. Let’s look at the

following example to understand set comprehensions.

Example #1 : Suppose we want to create an output set

which contains only the even numbers that are present in

the input list. Note that set will discard all the duplicate

values. Let’s see how we can do this using for loops and set

comprehension.

input_list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7]

output_set = set()

# Using loop for constructing output set

for var in input_list:

if var % 2 == 0:

output_set.add(var)

print("Output Set using for loop:", output_set)

Output: Output Set using for loop: {2, 4, 6}

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 # Using Set comprehensions

# for constructing output set

input_list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7]

set_using_comp = {var for var in input_list if var % 2

== 0}

print("Output Set using set

comprehensions:",set_using_comp)

Output: Output Set using set comprehensions: {2, 4, 6}

D. generator comprehension

Generator Comprehensions are very similar to list

comprehensions. One difference between them is that

generator comprehensions use circular brackets

whereas list comprehensions use square brackets. The

major difference between them is that generators don’t

allocate memory for the whole list. Instead, they generate

each value one by one which is why they are memory

efficient.

Let’s look at the following example to understand

generator comprehension:

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 input_list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7, 7]

output_gen = (var for var in input_list if var % 2 ==

0)

print("Output values using generator

comprehensions:", end = ' ')

for var in output_gen:

print(var, end = ' ')

Output: Output values using generator comprehensions:

2 4 4 6

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Question 59

What is a decorator?

A decorator is a design pattern in Python that allows a

user to add new functionality to an existing object

without modifying its structure. Decorators are usually

called before the definition of a function you want to

decorate.

● Assigning Functions to Variables

To kick us off we create a function that will add one to a

number whenever it is called. We'll then assign the

function to a variable and use this variable to call the

function.

def plus_one(number):

return number + 1

add_one = plus_one

add_one(5)

Output:- 6

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● Defining Functions Inside other Functions

Next, we'll illustrate how you can define a function inside

another function in Python. Stay with me, we'll soon find

out how all this is relevant in creating and understanding

decorators in Python.

def plus_one(number):

def add_one(number):

return number + 1

result = add_one(number)

return result

plus_one(4)

Output:- 5

● Passing Functions as Arguments to other Functions

Functions can also be passed as parameters to other

functions. Let's illustrate that below.

def plus_one(number):

return number + 1

def function_call(function):

number_to_add = 5

return function(number_to_add)

function_call(plus_one)

Output:- 5

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● Functions Returning other Functions

A function can also generate another function. We'll show

that below using an example.

def hello_function():

def say_hi():

return "Hi"

return say_hi

hello = hello_function()

hello()

Output:- ‘hi’

● Nested Functions have access to the Enclosing Function's

Variable Scope

Python allows a nested function to access the outer scope of

the enclosing function. This is a critical concept in

decorators -- this pattern is known as a Closure.

def print_message(message):

"Enclosing Function"

def message_sender():

"Nested Function"

print(message)

message_sender()

print_message("Some random message")

Output:- Some random message

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● Creating Decorators

With these prerequisites out of the way, let's go ahead

and create a simple decorator that will convert a

sentence to uppercase. We do this by defining a wrapper

inside an enclosed function. As you can see it is very

similar to the function inside another function that we

created earlier.

def uppercase_decorator(function):

def wrapper():

func = function()

make_uppercase = [Link]()

return make_uppercase

return wrapper

Our decorator function takes a function as an argument,

and we shall, therefore, define a function and pass it to

our decorator. We learned earlier that we could assign a

function to a variable. We'll use that trick to call our

decorator function.

def say_hi():

return 'hello there'

decorate = uppercase_decorator(say_hi)

decorate()

Output 'HELLO THERE'

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However, Python provides a much easier way for us to apply

decorators. We simply use the @ symbol before the function

we'd like to decorate. Let's show that in practice below.

@uppercase_decorator

def say_hi():

return 'hello there'

say_hi()

Output 'HELLO THERE'

● Applying Multiple Decorators to a Single Function

We can use multiple decorators to a single function.

However, the decorators will be applied in the order that

we've called them. Below we'll define another decorator

that splits the sentence into a list. We'll then apply the

uppercase_decorator and split_string decorator to a

single function.

def split_string(function):

def wrapper():

func = function()

splitted_string = [Link]()

return splitted_string

return wrapper

@split_string

@uppercase_decorator

def say_hi():

return 'hello there'

say_hi()

['HELLO', 'THERE']

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From the above output, we notice that the application of

decorators is from the bottom up. Had we interchanged

the order, we'd have seen an error since lists don't have

an upper attribute. The sentence has first been converted

to uppercase and then split into a list.

● Accepting Arguments in Decorator Functions

Sometimes we might need to define a decorator that

accepts arguments. We achieve this by passing the

arguments to the wrapper function. The arguments will

then be passed to the function that is being decorated at

call time.

def decorator_with_arguments(function):

def wrapper_accepting_arguments(arg1, arg2):

print("My arguments are: {0}, {1}".format(arg1,arg2))

function(arg1, arg2)

return wrapper_accepting_arguments

@decorator_with_arguments

def cities(city_one, city_two):

print("Cities I love are {0} and {1}".format(city_one,

city_two))

cities("Nairobi", "Accra")

Output My arguments are: Nairobi, Accra

Cities I love are Nairobi and Accra

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● Defining General Purpose Decorators

To define a general purpose decorator that can be applied

to any function we use args and **kwargs. args and

**kwargs collect all positional and keyword arguments and

store them in the args and kwargs variables. args and

kwargs allow us to pass as many arguments as we would

like during function calls.

def

a_decorator_passing_arbitrary_arguments(function

_to_decorate):

def

a_wrapper_accepting_arbitrary_arguments(*args,**

kwargs):

print('The positional arguments are', args)

print('The keyword arguments are', kwargs)

function_to_decorate(*args)

return a_wrapper_accepting_arbitrary_arguments

@a_decorator_passing_arbitrary_arguments

def function_with_no_argument():

print("No arguments here.")

function_with_no_argument()

The positional arguments are ()

The keyword arguments are {}

No arguments here.

Let's see how we'd use the decorator using positional

arguments.

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 @a_decorator_passing_arbitrary_arguments

def function_with_arguments(a, b, c):

print(a, b, c)

function_with_arguments(1,2,3)

The positional arguments are (1, 2, 3)

The keyword arguments are {}

1 2 3

Keyword arguments are passed using keywords. An

illustration of this is shown below.

@a_decorator_passing_arbitrary_arguments

def function_with_keyword_arguments():

print("This has shown keyword arguments")

function_with_keyword_arguments(first_name="Der

rick", last_name="Mwiti")

The positional arguments are () The keyword

arguments are {'first_name': 'Derrick', 'last_name':

'Mwiti'} This has shown keyword arguments

● Passing Arguments to the Decorator

Now let's see how we'd pass arguments to the decorator

itself. In order to achieve this, we define a decorator maker

that accepts arguments then defines a decorator inside it.

We then define a wrapper function inside the decorator as

we did earlier.

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def decorator_maker_with_arguments(decorator_arg1,

decorator_arg2, decorator_arg3):

def decorator(func):

def wrapper(function_arg1, function_arg2, function_arg3)

"This is the wrapper function"

print("The wrapper can access all the variables\n"

"\t- from the decorator maker: {0} {1} {2}\n"

"\t- from the function call: {3} {4} {5}\n"

"and pass them to the decorated function"

.format(decorator_arg1, decorator_arg2,decorator_arg3,

function_arg1, function_arg2,function_arg3))

return func(function_arg1, function_arg2,function_arg3)

return wrapper

return decorator

pandas = "Pandas"

@decorator_maker_with_arguments(pandas,

"Numpy","Scikit-learn")

def decorated_function_with_arguments(function_arg1,

function_arg2,function_arg3):

print("This is the decorated function and it only knows

about its arguments: {0}"

" {1}" " {2}".format(function_arg1,

function_arg2,function_arg3))

decorated_function_with_arguments(pandas, "Science",

"Tools")

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The wrapper can access all the variables

- from the decorator maker: Pandas Numpy Scikit-learn

- from the function call: Pandas Science Tools

and pass them to the decorated function

This is the decorated function, and it only knows about its

arguments: Pandas Science Tools

● Debugging Decorators

As we have noticed, decorators wrap functions. The

original function name, its docstring, and parameter list

are all hidden by the wrapper closure: For example, when

we try to access the decorated_function_with_arguments

metadata, we'll see the wrapper closure's metadata. This

presents a challenge when debugging.

decorated_function_with_arguments.__name__

'wrapper'

decorated_function_with_arguments.__doc__

'This is the wrapper function'

In order to solve this challenge Python provides a

[Link] decorator. This decorator copies the lost

metadata from the undecorated function to the decorated

closure. Let's show how we'd do that.

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 import functools

def uppercase_decorator(func):

@[Link](func)

def wrapper():

return func().upper()

return wrapper

@uppercase_decorator

def say_hi():

"This will say hi"

return 'hello there'

say_hi()

'HELLO THERE'

When we check the say_hi metadata, we notice that it is

now referring to the function's metadata

and not the wrapper's metadata.

say_hi.__name__

'say_hi'

say_hi.__doc__

'This will say hi'

It is advisable and good practice to always use

[Link] when defining decorators. It will save you

a lot of headache in debugging.

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● Python Decorators Summary

Decorators dynamically alter the functionality of a

function, method, or class without having to directly use

subclasses or change the source code of the function

being decorated. Using decorators in Python also ensures

that your code is DRY(Don't Repeat Yourself). Decorators

have several use cases such as:

Authorization in Python frameworks such as Flask and

Django

Logging

Measuring execution time

Synchronization

Question 60

What are Python Modules?

Files containing Python codes are referred to as Python

Modules. This code can either be

classes, functions, or variables and saves the

programmer time by providing the predefined

functionalities when needed. It is a file with “.py”

extension containing an executable code.

Commonly used built modules are listed below:

os
math

sys
random

data time

JSON

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Question 61

What is pep 8?

PEP in Python stands for Python Enhancement Proposal.

It is a set of rules that specify how to write and design

Python code for maximum readability.

Question 62

What are Python packages?

A Python package refers to the collection of different

sub-packages and modules based on the similarities of

the function.

Question 63

What are the popular Python libraries used

in Data analysis?

Some of the popular libraries of Python used for Data

analysis are:

Pandas: Powerful Python Data Analysis Toolkit

SciKit: This is a machine learning library in Python.

Seaborn: This is a statistical data visualization library in

Python.

SciPy: This is an open source system for science,

mathematics and engineering implemented in Python.

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Question 64

What is the difference between append()

and extend() methods?

Both append() and extend() methods are methods

used to add elements at the end of a list.

append(element): Adds the given element at the end of

the list that called this append() method

extend(another-list): Adds the elements of another list

at the end of the list that called this

extend() method

Question 65

What is docstring in Python?

Python lets users include a description (or quick notes) for

their methods using documentation strings or docstrings.

Docstrings are different from regular comments in Python

as, rather than being completely ignored by the Python

Interpreter like in the case of comments, these are defined

within triple quotes.

Using docstring as a comment.

This code add two numbers

"""

x=7

y=9

z=x+y

print(z)

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Question 66

How is Multithreading achieved in Python?

Python has a multi-threading package ,but commonly

not considered as good practice to use it as it will result

in increased code execution time. Python has a

constructor called the Global Interpreter Lock (GIL). The

GIL ensures that only one of your ‘threads’ can execute

at one [Link] process makes sure that a thread

acquires the GIL, does a little work, then passes the GIL

onto the next thread. This happens at a very Quick

instance of time and that’s why to the human eye it

seems like your threads are executing parallely, but in

reality they are executing one by one by just taking

turns using the same CPU core.

Question 67

What are the common built-in data types in

Python?

Python supports the below-mentioned built-in data

types:

Immutable data types: Number , String, Tuple

Mutable data types: List, Dictionary, Set

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Question 68

What is the difference between split() and

slicing in Python?

Both split() function and slicing work on a String object.

By using split() function, we can get the list of words

from a String.

E.g. 'a b c '.split() returns [‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’]

Slicing is a way of getting substring from a String. It

returns another String.

E.g. >>> 'a b c'[2:3] returns b

Question 69

How can you randomize the items of a list in

place in Python?

This can be easily achieved by using the Shuffle()

function from the random library as shown below:

from random import shuffle

List = ['He', 'Loves', 'To', 'Code', 'In', 'Python']

shuffle(List)

print(List)

Output: [‘Loves’,’He’ ,’To ,’In’, ‘Python’,’Code’]

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Question 70

What are negative indexes and why are they

used?

To access an element from ordered sequences, we

simply use the index of the element, which is

the position number of that particular element. The

index usually starts from 0, i.e., the first

element has index 0, the second has 1, and so on.

Python Indexing

When we use the index to access elements from the end

of a list, it’s called reverse indexing. In

reverse indexing, the indexing of elements starts from

the last element with the index number ‘−1’.

The second last element has index ‘−2’, and so on. These

indexes used in reverse indexing are

called negative indexes.

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Question 71

Explain split(), sub(), subn() methods of “re”

module in Python?

These methods belong to the Python RegEx or ‘re’

module and are used to modify strings.

split(): This method is used to split a given string into a

list.

sub(): This method is used to find a substring where a

regex pattern matches, and then it replaces the

matched substring with a different string.

subn(): This method is similar to the sub() method, but

it returns the new string, along with the

number of replacements.

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Question 72

What is a map function in Python?

The map() function in Python has two parameters,

function and iterable. The map() function takes

a function as an argument and then applies that

function to all the elements of an iterable, passed

to it as another argument. It returns an object list of

results.

def calculateSq(n):

return n*n

numbers = (2, 3, 4, 5)

result = map( calculateSq, numbers)

print(result)

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Question 73

Explain all file processing modes supported

in Python?

Python has various file processing modes.

For opening files, there are three modes:

read-only mode (r)

write-only mode (w)

read–write mode (rw)

For opening a text file using the above modes, we will

have to append ‘t’ with them as follows:

read-only mode (rt)

write-only mode (wt)

read–write mode (rwt)

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Similarly, a binary file can be opened by appending ‘b’

with them as follows:

read-only mode (rb)

write-only mode (wb)

read–write mode (rwb)

To append the content in the files, we can use the

append mode (a):

For text files, the mode would be ‘at’

For binary files, it would be ‘ab’

Question 74

How will you remove duplicate elements

from a list?

To remove duplicate elements from the list we use the

set() function.

Consider the below example:

demo_list=[5,4,4,6,8,12,12,1,5]

unique_list = list(set(demo_list))

output:[1,5,6,8,12]

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Question 75

How will you read a random line in a file?

We can read a random line in a file using the random

module.

For example:

import random

def read_random(fname):

lines = open(fname).read().splitlines()

return [Link](lines)

print(read_random (‘[Link]’))

Question 76

How can files be deleted in Python?

You need to import the OS Module and use [Link]()

function for deleting a file in python.

consider the code below:

import os

[Link]("file_name.txt")

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Question 77

How can you generate random numbers in

Python?

This is achieved with importing the random module,it is

the module that is used to generate

random numbers.

Syntax:

import random

[Link] # returns the floating point

random number between the range of [0,1].

Question 78

What is slicing in Python?

Slicing is a process used to select a range of elements

from sequence data type like list, string and tuple.

Slicing is beneficial and easy to extract out the

elements. It requires a : (colon) which separates the

start index and end index of the field. All the data

sequence types List or tuple allows us to use slicing to

get the needed elements. Although we can get

elements by specifying an index, we get only a single

element whereas using slicing we can get a group or

appropriate range of needed elements.

Syntax - List_name[start:stop]

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Question 79

Define Constructor in Python?

Constructor is a special type of method with a block of

code to initialize the state of instance members of the

class. A constructor is called only when the instance of

the object is created. It is also used to verify that they

are sufficient resources for objects to perform a specific

task.

There are two types of constructors in Python, and they

are:

● Parameterized constructor

● Non-parameterized constructor

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Question 80

How can we create a constructor in Python

programming?

The _init_ method in Python stimulates the constructor

of the class. Creating a constructor in

Python can be explained clearly in the below example.

class Student:

def __init__(self,name,id):

[Link] = id;

[Link] = name;

def display (self):

print("ID: %d nName: %s"%([Link],[Link]))

stu1 =Student("nirvi",105)

stu2 = Student("tanvi",106)

#accessing display() method to print employee

1 information

[Link]();

#accessing display() method to print employee

2 information

[Link]();

Output:

ID: 1

Name: nirvi

ID: 106

Name: Tanvi

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