Protective Relay

Definition

A protective relay is an electrical device that detects faults in a power system and initiates
the operation of the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty section from the rest of the system.

Working Principle

 A protective relay continuously monitors electrical quantities in the power system.

 Under normal operating conditions, these quantities remain within their specified
limits.
 During a fault, one or more electrical quantities change significantly.
 The relay detects these abnormal changes and sends a tripping signal to the circuit
breaker.
 The circuit breaker opens, disconnecting the faulty section and protecting the
remaining healthy part of the system.

Electrical Quantities Monitored

A protective relay detects faults by monitoring the following electrical quantities:

 Voltage
 Current
 Frequency
 Phase angle

Changes in these quantities help the relay determine:

 Presence of a fault
  Type of fault
 Location of the fault

Parts of a Typical Relay Circuit

A typical relay circuit consists of three main parts:

1. Current Transformer (CT)

 The primary winding of the Current Transformer (CT) is connected in series with the
transmission line to be protected.
 It provides a proportional current to the relay circuit.

2. Relay Circuit

 Consists of:

o Secondary winding of the CT

o Relay operating coil
 The relay receives the current from the CT and detects abnormal conditions.

3. Tripping Circuit

 May be AC or DC.
 Consists of:

o Power supply
o Trip coil of the circuit breaker
o Relay stationary contacts
 When the relay operates, it completes the tripping circuit and energizes the trip coil.

Operation During a Fault

1. A short circuit occurs at point F on the transmission line.

2. The line current increases to a very high value.
3. The CT supplies a large current to the relay operating coil.
4. The relay operates and closes its contacts.
5. The tripping circuit is completed.
6. The circuit breaker trip coil is energized.
7. The circuit breaker opens and disconnects the faulty section.
8. The healthy part of the power system continues to operate safely.

Advantages of Protective Relay

 Detects faults quickly and accurately.

 Protects electrical equipment from damage.
 Isolates only the faulty section.
  Ensures continuous and reliable operation of the healthy part of the power system.
 Improves the safety and stability of the electrical system.

21.2 Fundamental Requirements of Protective Relaying

A good protective relaying system should possess the following fundamental requirements:

1. Selectivity

Definition: Selectivity is the ability of the protective relay to isolate only the faulty section
without disturbing the healthy part of the power system.

Importance:

 Disconnects only the faulty section.

 Prevents unnecessary power interruption.
 The power system is divided into protection zones with slight overlap to ensure
complete protection.

Figure: Draw the protection zone diagram (Fig. 21.2).

2. Speed

Definition: Speed is the ability of the relay to disconnect the faulty section as quickly as
possible.

Importance:

 Prevents equipment damage.

 Maintains system stability.
 Prevents minor faults from becoming severe.

3. Sensitivity

Definition: Sensitivity is the ability of the relay to operate with a low value of actuating
quantity.

Importance:

 Detects small faults quickly.

 Lower VA input means higher sensitivity.
4. Reliability

Definition: Reliability is the ability of the relay to operate correctly under predetermined
fault conditions.

Importance:

 Ensures dependable protection.

 Prevents failure of the protection system.

5. Simplicity

Definition: The relay system should have a simple design for easy operation and
maintenance.

Importance:

 Easy to maintain.
 Improves overall reliability.

6. Economy

Definition: The protection scheme should provide adequate protection at a reasonable cost.

Importance:

 Protective equipment should generally cost less than 5% of the total system cost.
 For important equipment, reliability is preferred over cost.

21.7 Important Terms

(i) Pick-up Current

Pick-up current is the minimum current in the relay coil at which the relay starts to operate.
If the relay current is below the pick-up value, the relay does not operate and the circuit
breaker remains closed. When the current becomes equal to or greater than the pick-up
value, the relay operates and energizes the trip coil to open the circuit breaker.
(ii) Current Setting

Current setting is the adjustment of the relay's pick-up current to the desired value by
changing the number of turns of the relay operating coil using tappings.

Formula:

Pick-up Current = Rated Secondary Current of C.T. × Current Setting

Example:

 C.T. ratio = 400/5

 Current setting = 125%

Pick-up Current = 5 × 1.25 = 6.25 A

Thus, the relay will operate when the relay coil current is 6.25 A or more.

Current Setting Range:

 Overcurrent relays: 50% to 200% (in steps of 25%)

 Earth leakage relays: 10% to 70% (in steps of 10%)

Figure: Draw Fig. 21.14 (Current Setting Arrangement).

(iii) Plug-Setting Multiplier (P.S.M.)

Plug-Setting Multiplier (P.S.M.) is the ratio of the fault current in the relay coil to the pick-
up current.

Formula:

P.S.M. = Fault Current in Relay Coil / Pick-up Current

or

P.S.M. = Fault Current in Relay Coil / (Rated Secondary Current of C.T. × Current Setting)

Example:

 C.T. ratio = 400/5

 Current setting = 150%
 Primary fault current = 2400 A
Pick-up Current = 5 × 1.5 = 7.5 A

Fault Current in Relay Coil = (2400 × 5) / 400 = 30 A

P.S.M. = 30 / 7.5 = 4

(iv) Time-Setting Multiplier (T.S.M.)

Time-Setting Multiplier (T.S.M.) is used to adjust the operating time of the relay. The time-
setting dial is usually calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05.

Formula:

Actual Operating Time = Time from Time/P.S.M. Curve × Time-Setting Multiplier

Example:

 Time from curve = 3 s

 T.S.M. = 0.1

Actual Operating Time = 3 × 0.1 = 0.3 s

Figure: Draw Fig. 21.15 (Time-Setting Dial).

21.8 Time/P.S.M. Curve

The Time/P.S.M. Curve shows the relationship between the relay operating time and the
Plug-Setting Multiplier (P.S.M.).

 The horizontal axis represents Plug-Setting Multiplier (P.S.M.).

  The vertical axis represents Relay Operating Time.
 The actual operating time is obtained by multiplying the time from the curve by the
Time-Setting Multiplier (T.S.M.).
 As the fault current (P.S.M.) increases, the operating time decreases.
 At very high fault currents (about 20 times the full-load current), the operating time
becomes nearly constant. This ensures proper discrimination between faulty and
healthy feeders.

Example 21.1

Determine the operating time of a 5 A, 3-second overcurrent relay having a current

setting of 125% and a time-setting multiplier of 0.6. The relay is connected through a
400/5 C.T. and the fault current is 4000 A.

Given:

 Rated secondary current of C.T. = 5 A

 Current setting = 125%
 Time-setting multiplier (T.S.M.) = 0.6
 C.T. ratio = 400/5
 Primary fault current = 4000 A

Calculation:

1. Pick-up Current

Pick-up Current = Rated Secondary Current × Current Setting

= 5 × 1.25

= 6.25 A

2. Fault Current in Relay Coil

Fault Current = (4000 × 5) / 400

= 50 A

3. Plug-Setting Multiplier (P.S.M.)

P.S.M. = Fault Current / Pick-up Current

= 50 / 6.25
=8

4. Relay Operating Time

From the Time/P.S.M. Curve (Fig. 21.16),

For P.S.M. = 8, Operating Time = 3.5 s

Actual Operating Time = 3.5 × 0.6

= 2.1 s

Answer:

The actual operating time of the relay is 2.1 seconds.

21.11 Induction Type Overcurrent Relay (Non-directional) *

An induction type overcurrent relay operates on the electromagnetic induction principle.

It initiates the tripping of the circuit breaker when the current in the protected circuit
exceeds a predetermined value. The relay is energized through a current transformer (C.T.)
and is used only in A.C. circuits. It can operate for fault current flowing in either direction.

Construction

The main parts of an induction type overcurrent relay are:

 An aluminium disc mounted on a spindle and free to rotate between the poles of
two electromagnets.
 Upper electromagnet having:
o A primary winding connected to the secondary of the current transformer
(C.T.).
o Tappings connected to a plug-setting bridge for current setting.
 Lower electromagnet, whose winding is connected in series with the secondary
winding of the upper electromagnet.
 A spiral spring that provides the restraining (controlling) torque.
 A moving contact mounted on the spindle and two fixed contacts connected to the
trip circuit.
  A time-setting mechanism that adjusts the angle through which the disc must rotate
before closing the contacts.

Figure: Fig. 21.17 (Construction of Induction Type Overcurrent Relay).

Operation

 Under normal operating conditions, the relay current is below the preset value.
 The restraining torque produced by the spring is greater than the driving torque, so
the aluminium disc remains stationary.
 During a fault, the current exceeds the preset value, increasing the driving torque.
 When the driving torque becomes greater than the restraining torque, the aluminium
disc rotates.
 After rotating through the preset angle, the moving contact bridges the fixed
contacts.
 This completes the trip circuit and energizes the circuit breaker.
 The circuit breaker opens and isolates the faulty section from the healthy part of the
power system.

Applications
  Protection of A.C. circuits against overcurrent faults.
 Suitable for non-directional protection, where fault current may flow in either
direction.

21.13 Induction Type Directional Overcurrent Relay

The induction type directional overcurrent relay is designed to operate during short-circuit
faults. Unlike a directional power relay, its operation is almost independent of system
voltage and power factor. It is used where fault current must flow in a specific direction
before tripping occurs.

Construction

The relay consists of two main elements mounted in a common case:

1. Directional Element

 It is a directional power relay.

 The potential coil is connected to the system voltage through a Potential
Transformer (P.T.).
 The current coil is connected through a Current Transformer (C.T.).
 Its contacts (1 and 2) are connected in series with the overcurrent element.
 It operates only when power flows in the specified direction.

2. Non-directional Overcurrent Element

 It is similar to an induction type non-directional overcurrent relay.

 It operates only after the directional element closes contacts 1 and 2.
 When it operates, it closes the trip circuit and causes the circuit breaker to open.
Figure: Fig. 21.19 (Induction Type Directional Overcurrent Relay).

Operation

 Under normal conditions, power flows in the normal direction, so the directional
element remains inactive and the overcurrent element does not operate.
 During a short circuit, if the current or power flows in the reverse direction, the
directional element operates first and closes contacts 1 and 2.
 This energizes the overcurrent element.
 If the fault current exceeds the preset value for the specified time, the overcurrent
element closes the trip circuit.
 The circuit breaker opens and isolates the faulty section.

Conditions for Relay Operation

The relay trips only when all the following conditions are satisfied:

1. The current flows in the direction required to operate the directional element.
2. The reverse fault current exceeds the preset value.
3. The fault current persists for the time specified by the time setting of the overcurrent
element.

21.14 Distance (Impedance) Relay

A distance (impedance) relay is a protective relay whose operation depends on the ratio of
voltage to current (V/I) in the protected circuit. It operates when the impedance of the
protected line becomes less than a predetermined value. Since impedance is proportional
to the distance along a transmission line, this relay is also called a distance relay.

Construction

A distance relay consists of:

 A voltage element connected to the line through a Potential Transformer (P.T.).

 A current element connected through a Current Transformer (C.T.).
 The current element produces the operating torque, while the voltage element
produces the restraining torque.

Figure: Fig. 21.20 (Basic Principle of Distance Relay).

Operation

 Under normal operating conditions, the impedance of the protected line is equal to
its normal value, so the relay does not operate.
 If a fault occurs within the protected zone, the impedance (V/I) decreases below the
preset value, causing the relay to operate and trip the circuit breaker.
 If the fault occurs outside the protected zone, the impedance remains greater than
the preset value, and the relay does not operate.

Types of Distance Relays

1. Definite-Distance Relay

 Operates instantaneously for faults occurring within a predetermined distance from

the relay.

2. Time-Distance Relay

 Operating time depends on the distance of the fault.

 Nearer faults: Faster operation.
 Farther faults: Slower operation.
Applications

 Protection of transmission lines.

 Suitable for long transmission lines where fault location depends on line impedance.

21.15 Definite-Distance Type Impedance Relay

A definite-distance type impedance relay is a distance relay that operates instantaneously

when a fault occurs within a predetermined distance from the relay location.

Construction

The relay consists of:

 A pivoted beam (F).

 Two electromagnets:
o Current element, energized through a Current Transformer (C.T.).
o Voltage element, energized through a Potential Transformer (P.T.).
 The armatures of the two electromagnets are connected to opposite sides of the
pivoted beam.
 A bridging piece is attached to the beam to close the trip contacts.
 The torques produced by the two electromagnets act in opposite directions.

Figure: Fig. 21.21 (Definite-Distance Type Impedance Relay).

Operation

 Under normal operating conditions, the pull of the voltage element is greater than
that of the current element, so the trip contacts remain open.
 When a fault occurs within the protected zone:
o The voltage decreases.
o The current increases.
o The impedance (V/I) decreases below the preset value.
 As a result, the pull of the current element becomes greater than the pull of the
voltage element.
 The beam tilts and closes the trip contacts.
  The circuit breaker operates and isolates the faulty section.

Operating Condition

The relay operates when:

where:

 V = Voltage
 I = Current
 Z = Impedance
 k₁, k₂ = Relay constants

The relay setting can be changed by providing tappings on the electromagnet coils.

21.16 Time-Distance Impedance Relay

A time-distance impedance relay is a distance relay whose operating time is proportional

to the distance of the fault from the relay.

Operating Time (T) ∝V/I ∝Z ∝Distance

Construction

The relay consists of:

 An induction-type current element with a rotating aluminium disc.

 A spiral spring coupling connecting the disc spindle to a second spindle.
 A voltage-excited electromagnet that holds the armature in the normal position.
 A bridging piece attached to the second spindle for closing the trip contacts.
 Figure: Draw Fig. 21.22 (Time-Distance Impedance Relay).

Operation

 Under normal operating conditions, the voltage-excited electromagnet holds the

armature, keeping the trip contacts open.
 When a fault occurs, the induction current element starts rotating. The speed of
rotation depends on the fault current.
 As the disc rotates, the spiral spring is wound up.
 When the spring tension becomes greater than the pull of the voltage-excited
electromagnet, the armature is released.
 The bridging piece quickly closes the trip contacts.
 The circuit breaker operates and isolates the faulty section.

Characteristics

 Operating time increases with the distance of the fault from the relay.
 A near fault has lower impedance and operates the relay faster.
 A far fault has higher impedance and operates the relay more slowly.
 Therefore,

Operating Time ∝ V/I ∝ Impedance (Z) ∝Distance

21.17 Differential Relays

A differential relay operates when the phasor difference of two or more similar electrical
quantities exceeds a predetermined value. It compares the current entering and leaving the
protected section. Under normal conditions, these currents are equal, so the relay does not
operate. During a fault, the difference in current flows through the relay coil, causing it to
trip the circuit breaker.

Unlike overcurrent relays, differential relays are more sensitive and can clearly distinguish
between heavy load conditions and internal faults.

There are two types of differential protection:

1. Current Balance Protection

2. Voltage Balance Protection

21.18 Current Differential Relay

A current differential relay compares the currents at both ends of the protected section
using two identical Current Transformers (C.T.s).

Construction

 Two identical C.T.s are installed at both ends of the protected section.
 The C.T. secondaries are connected in series.
 An overcurrent relay is connected across the C.T. secondary circuit.
 The relay compares the incoming and outgoing currents.
 

Figure: Draw Fig. 21.23 (Current Differential Relay).

Operation

 Normal Condition: The currents at both ends are equal. Hence, no current flows
through the relay, and it remains inoperative.
 Fault Condition: The currents become unequal. The difference (differential current)
flows through the relay operating coil, causing it to trip the circuit breaker.

Fault Cases

1. Current enters from one side and leaves from the other:
Differential current = Difference of the two C.T. secondary currents.
2. Current flows to the fault from both sides:
Differential current = Sum of the two C.T. secondary currents.

Disadvantages

 Pilot cable impedance may produce a small differential current even under normal
conditions, causing unwanted operation.
  Pilot cable capacitance may cause incorrect operation during heavy through-current.
 Exact matching of current transformers is difficult due to pilot circuit impedance.

Biased Beam Relay (Percentage Differential Relay)

The biased beam relay is an improved form of differential relay. It includes an additional
restraining coil that produces a bias force opposite to the operating force.

Operation

 Under normal and through-load conditions, the restraining force is greater than the
operating force, so the relay does not operate.
 During an internal fault, the operating force exceeds the restraining force, causing
the relay to trip the circuit breaker.
 The restraining force can be adjusted by changing the number of turns on the
restraining coil.

Advantages

 Prevents unwanted tripping during heavy load and external faults.

 Compensates for errors due to current transformer mismatch and pilot cable
impedance.
 Provides more stable and reliable protection than a simple current differential relay.
21.19 Voltage Balance Differential Relay

The voltage balance differential relay is a differential protection scheme in which two
identical Current Transformers (C.T.s) are connected at both ends of the protected section
through pilot wires. The relay operates when the secondary voltages of the two C.T.s
become unbalanced due to an internal fault.

Construction

 Two identical Current Transformers (C.T.s) are installed at both ends of the
protected section.
 The C.T. secondaries are connected in series through pilot wires.
 A relay is connected in the secondary circuit.
 The C.T.s are connected so that their secondary e.m.f.s oppose each other.

Figure: Draw Fig. 21.27 (Voltage Balance Differential Relay).

Operation

 Normal Condition: The primary currents are equal (I₁ = I₂). Hence, the secondary
voltages are equal and opposite, resulting in no current through the relay. Therefore,
the relay remains inoperative.
 Fault Condition: The primary currents become unequal (I₁ ≠ I₂). The secondary
voltages are no longer balanced, producing a voltage difference. This causes current
to flow through the relay operating coil, which closes the trip circuit and opens the
circuit breaker.

Disadvantages

1. Accurate matching of current transformers requires multi-gap transformer

construction.
2. The scheme is suitable only for short cables, as the capacitance of long pilot wires
may produce charging current sufficient to operate the relay incorrectly.

Note: These disadvantages are largely overcome by the Translay (modified) balanced
voltage system.
4.3 Ionization of Gases

Ionization is the process by which neutral gas atoms or molecules are converted into
charged particles (ions and electrons). It is essential for the formation and maintenance of
an electric arc in a circuit breaker.

(a) Thermal Ionization

Thermal ionization is the ionization produced by high temperature.

 At normal temperature, gas molecules move randomly.

 At about 3000°C, gas molecules dissociate into atoms.
 At about 6000°C, collisions between atoms become so energetic that electrons are
knocked out, producing ions and free electrons.
 This process is called thermal ionization.

(b) Ionization by Collision

Ionization by collision occurs when a fast-moving electron, ion, or molecule collides with
another atom or molecule.

 The moving particle transfers its energy during collision.

 If the transferred energy is sufficient, electrons are removed from the atom.
 This creates new ions and electrons, increasing ionization.
(c) Thermal Emission from Contact Surface

Thermal emission occurs due to the high temperature at the contact surfaces.

 When the contacts begin to separate, the contact area decreases.

 Current flows through a few small contact spots, producing very high current density.
 High temperature is developed at these spots and in the arc.
 As a result, electrons are emitted from the contact surface.

Figure: Draw Fig. 4.1 (Electron Emission).

(d) Secondary Emission

Secondary emission occurs when high-speed electrons strike the surface of the opposite
contact.

 The impact releases additional electrons from the contact surface.

 This increases the ionization of the gas.

(e) Field Emission

Field emission is caused by a strong electric field near the contact surface.

 As the contacts separate, a very high voltage gradient develops.

 If the electric field becomes sufficiently high, electrons are emitted directly from the
electrode surface.
 This ionizes the surrounding gas and may lead to electrical breakdown.

(f) Photoemission

Photoemission is the emission of electrons from the contact surface due to the incidence of
light energy.
4.4 Deionization

Deionization is the process of removing ions and free electrons from the space between
the contacts after current interruption. It helps restore the insulating strength of the
medium and assists in arc extinction.

(a) Recombination

 Positive ions combine with electrons to form neutral atoms.

 This reduces the number of charged particles and weakens the arc.

(b) Diffusion

 Electrons and ions move from the highly ionized region to the surrounding weakly
ionized region.
 This reduces ion concentration and increases dielectric strength.

(c) Conduction of Heat

 Heat is conducted away from the hot ionized region to the cooler surrounding areas.
 The temperature decreases, promoting recombination and reducing ionization.
 This helps extinguish the arc more quickly.

Importance of Deionization

 Restores the dielectric strength of the insulating medium.

 Removes charged particles between the contacts.
 Assists in rapid arc extinction.
 Prevents restriking of the arc after current interruption.

4.5 Electric Arc

An electric arc is a self-sustained discharge of electricity between two electrodes through a

gas or vapour. During an arc, the voltage across the electrodes is low, while the current is
high. The current is limited by the external circuit impedance.

The temperature of the arc core is very high, ranging from 6000 K to 25,000 K. The arc
consists of a bright central core surrounded by a column of hot ionized gases. The current
density in the arc core is several thousand amperes per cm².

Figure: Draw Fig. 4.2 (Temperature Zones in the Arc).

Volt-Ampere Characteristic of Arc

The voltage across a steady arc is given by:

Varc = A + Bd + (C + Dd)/Iarc

where:

 Varc = Arc voltage

 Iarc = Arc current
 d = Arc length
 A, B, C, D = Constants

For a short arc, the equation becomes:

Varc = A + C/Iarc

Characteristics

 Arc voltage decreases as arc current increases.

 Longer arcs have higher voltage due to greater arc length.

Figure: Draw Fig. 4.3 (Static Characteristic of Arc).

Arc Energy

The energy dissipated in the arc is:

Earc = Varc × Iarc × t

where:

 Earc = Arc energy (J)

 Varc = Arc voltage (V)
 Iarc = Arc current (A)
 t = Arc duration (s)
For AC circuit breakers, the arc duration is approximately 0.02 s.

Energy Stored in the System

The energy stored in the system is:

Es = (1/2)Li²

where:

 Es = Stored energy (J)

 L = Inductance (H)
 i = Current (A)

Arc Quenching

In an AC system, the current becomes zero at the end of every half cycle (natural current
zero). At this instant, the stored energy in the system also becomes zero. Therefore, the arc
can be extinguished naturally at the current zero. Successful arc interruption depends on
reducing the arc energy and restoring the dielectric strength between the contacts.

4.6 Arc Formation in A.C. Circuit-Breakers

An electric arc is formed when the contacts of an A.C. circuit breaker separate while
carrying current. Due to the separation of contacts, the space between them becomes
ionized and conducts electricity, allowing the current to continue flowing in the form of an
arc.

Arc Formation

 As the contacts separate, high local temperatures are produced at the contact
surfaces.
 Electrons are emitted from the contacts due to:
o Thermal emission
o Secondary emission
o Field emission
o Photoemission
 The gas between the contacts is ionized by:

o Thermal ionization
o Ionization by collision
 The ionized gas forms a plasma, which is highly conductive.
 As a result, an electric arc is established between the separating contacts.

Characteristics of A.C. Arc

  The arc voltage is approximately in phase with the arc current because the arc
behaves mainly as a resistive path.
 The arc voltage reverses its polarity along with the current.
 At every current zero, the voltage across the contacts also reverses.
 Arc extinction is possible at these natural current zeros if sufficient dielectric strength
is restored.

Figure: Draw Fig. 4.4 (A.C. Arc Voltage and Current Characteristics).

4.7 Modes of Arc Extinction (Exam Notes)

There are three methods of arc interruption:

1. High Resistance Interruption

2. Low Resistance (Current Zero) Interruption
3. Artificial Current Zero Principle

1. High Resistance Interruption

Definition

In this method, the arc resistance is increased until the arc voltage becomes greater than
the system voltage, causing the arc to extinguish.
Working Principle

 When contacts separate, an arc is formed.

 The arc is lengthened.
 Longer arc → higher resistance.
 Higher resistance → lower current.
 Finally,

Varc> Vsystem

At this point, the arc cannot be sustained and is extinguished.

Methods of Increasing Arc Resistance

(a) Lengthening the Arc (Arc Runners / Arc Horns)

Construction

 Horn-shaped conducting blades

 Connected to arcing contacts
 Arranged in V-shape

Working

 Arc starts at the bottom.

 Electromagnetic force pushes the arc upward.
 Arc travels along arc runners.
 Arc length increases.
  Resistance increases.
 Arc extinguishes.

(b) Splitting the Arc

Uses arc splitters made of resin-bonded fiberglass.

Working

 Magnetic blow-out coils force the arc upward.

 Arc enters narrow spaces between splitter plates.
 Arc is

o elongated
o divided into several small arcs
o cooled

All these increase resistance and extinguish the arc.

(c) Cooling the Arc

Cooling causes

 recombination of ions and electrons

 reduction of ionization

The arc loses energy and goes out.

Cooling is achieved by

 fresh air
 cooler surrounding medium

Applications

Used in

 Low-voltage AC circuit breakers

 Medium-voltage AC circuit breakers
 DC circuit breakers
2. Low Resistance (Current Zero) Interruption

Definition

This method utilizes the natural current zero in AC systems to extinguish the arc.

Principle

In a 50 Hz AC supply, the current becomes zero

100 times/second100\text{ times/second}100 times/second

because there are two zero crossings in each cycle.

At every current zero,

 the arc naturally disappears for a very short time.

If the contact gap regains sufficient dielectric strength before the voltage rises again, the
arc does not reappear.

Working

1. Contacts separate.
2. Arc is formed.
3. Current reaches zero.
4. Arc disappears naturally.
5. Fresh insulating medium is introduced.

Examples:

 Oil
 Air
 SF₆ gas

1. Dielectric strength increases rapidly.

2. Arc cannot strike again.

Restriking Voltage

After current zero, a voltage appears across the contacts.

If

Dielectric strength > Restriking voltage

→ Arc is extinguished permanently.

If

Dielectric strength < Restriking voltage

→ Arc restrikes and continues for another half cycle.

Interrupter Design

Circuit breakers are designed to

 remove hot gases quickly

 replace them with fresh insulating medium
 increase dielectric strength rapidly

Arc Extinction Process (Three Phases)

The arc extinction process consists of three phases:

1. Arcing Phase

 Arc exists between contacts.

 Very high temperature.
 Heat is removed by radial and axial gas flow.
 Arc diameter gradually decreases.

2. Current Zero Phase

 Current naturally becomes zero.

 Arc diameter becomes extremely small.
 Arc disappears.

3. Post-Arc Phase

Although the arc has disappeared,

  hot ionized gases remain.

Fresh dielectric medium is introduced to

 remove hot gases

 cool the contact space
 restore dielectric strength

If dielectric strength rises quickly enough, the arc does not restrike.

Comparison: High Resistance vs. Low Resistance Interruption

High Resistance Interruption Low Resistance (Current Zero) Interruption

Used in AC and DC Used only in AC
Arc resistance is increased Uses natural current zero
Arc is lengthened Arc disappears at zero current
Requires rapid deionization and high dielectric
Requires arc runners, splitters, cooling
strength
Common in low and medium-voltage
Common in modern AC circuit breakers
breakers

Important Exam Points (2–5 Marks)

 High resistance interruption: Increase arc resistance by lengthening, splitting, and

cooling the arc until Varc>VsystemV_{arc} > V_{system}Varc>Vsystem.
 Low resistance interruption: Interrupt the arc at the natural current zero and quickly
restore dielectric strength using oil, air, or SF₆.
 Arc runners: Lengthen the arc.
 Arc splitters: Split, elongate, and cool the arc.
 Blow-out coils: Use electromagnetic force to move the arc upward.
 Three phases of arc extinction: Arcing phase → Current zero → Post-arc phase.
 50 Hz AC: Current crosses zero 100 times per second.

4.8 Arc Interruption Theories (Exam Notes)

Several theories have been proposed to explain how an electric arc is extinguished in a
circuit breaker. Although none of them completely explains the arc extinction process, they
have greatly helped in the design and development of modern circuit breakers.

Main Arc Interruption Theories

1. Slepian's Theory (1928–30)

2. Prince's Displacement Theory (1931)
 3. Cassie's Energy Balance Theory (1938)
4. Mayer's Theory

Note: In most university exams, Slepian's Theory and Cassie's Energy Balance
Theory are the most important.

1. Slepian's Theory (Dielectric Strength Theory)

Definition

Slepian explained arc extinction as a race between the dielectric strength of the contact
gap and the restriking (Transient Recovery) voltage (TRV).

After the current becomes zero, an ionized gas still remains between the contacts.

Two processes occur simultaneously:

 The dielectric strength of the contact gap increases.

 The restriking voltage (TRV) appears across the contacts.

The outcome depends on which one increases faster.

Working Principle
Figure Explanation

The graph contains three curves:

 Curve (a): Dielectric strength increases rapidly.

 Curve (b): Restriking voltage (TRV).
 Curve (c): Dielectric strength increases slowly.

Interpretation

 Curve (a) above curve (b): Arc is extinguished.

 Curve (c) below curve (b): Arc restrikes.

Merits

 First theory to explain arc interruption.

 Introduced the importance of Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV).
 Helped improve circuit breaker design.

Limitations

1. Assumes dielectric strength and restriking voltage are directly comparable.

2. Does not consider energy transfer in the arc.
3. Does not explain the arcing phase.
 4. Therefore, the theory is incomplete.

2. Cassie's Energy Balance Theory

Definition

Cassie explained arc interruption based on the balance between the electrical energy
supplied to the arc and the heat lost from the arc.

Assumptions of Cassie's Theory

Cassie assumed:

1. Cylindrical Arc

The arc is a cylindrical column with nearly uniform temperature.

2. Constant Temperature

The arc temperature remains constant.

3. Variable Cross-section

The arc cross-sectional area changes automatically according to the current.

Higher current → Larger arc diameter.

Lower current → Smaller arc diameter.

4. Power Loss

Power loss is proportional to the cross-sectional area of the arc.

Larger area → Greater heat loss.

Energy Equation

Cassie expressed the energy balance as

the arc loses energy and is

extinguished.

Applications

 Most suitable for high-current arc interruption.

  Helps explain thermal behavior of the arc.

Limitations

 Applicable mainly to high-current arcs.

 Does not explain the post-arc period.
 Therefore, it is also incomplete.

Mayer's Theory

 Similar to Cassie's theory.

 Based on energy balance.
 Uses different assumptions regarding arc characteristics.
 Also does not explain the complete arc extinction process.

Summary of Arc Extinction

Arc extinction at current zero is achieved by:

1. Rapid increase in dielectric strength.

2. Rapid removal of heat from the arc.
3. Effective cooling by fresh insulating medium.
4. Preventing restriking voltage from breaking down the contact gap.

Factors Affecting Arc Interruption

The success of arc interruption depends on:

 Speed of contact separation.

 Contact material.
 Flow pattern of quenching medium.
 Magnitude of arc current.
 Arc diameter variation.
 Energy released during arcing.
 Energy stored in system inductance.
 Rate of rise of transient recovery voltage (TRV).
 Rate of gain of dielectric strength.
 Instant of contact separation with respect to voltage and current wave.
Three Zones of Arc Extinction

1. Arcing Zone

 Arc exists between contacts.

 Thermal stresses are maximum.
 Circuit breaker tries to reduce arc diameter.
 Cooling and gas flow remove heat.

2. Current Zero Zone

 Current becomes zero naturally.

 Transition period.
 Arc disappears.

3. Post-Arc Zone

 Arc has disappeared.

 Voltage stress becomes dominant.
 Fresh dielectric medium (air, oil, SF₆) is introduced.
 Dielectric strength increases rapidly.
 Prevents restriking.

Difference Between Slepian's Theory and Cassie's Theory

Slepian's Theory Cassie's Theory

Based on dielectric strength and restriking
Based on energy balance of the arc.
voltage (TRV).
Explains restriking phenomenon. Explains thermal behavior of the arc.
Focuses mainly on high-current arcing
Focuses mainly on post-current-zero condition.
period.
Does not consider energy relations. Considers power input and heat loss.
Does not explain the post-arc phase
Does not explain the arcing phase completely.
completely.
19.5 Important Terms (Short Exam Notes)

1. Arc Voltage

Definition
Arc voltage is the voltage that appears across the contacts of a circuit breaker during the
arcing period.

Key Points

 Appears after the contacts separate and an arc is formed.

 Normally low during arcing.
 Near current zero, it rises rapidly to a peak value.

2. Restriking Voltage (Transient Recovery Voltage - TRV)

Definition

Restriking voltage is the high-frequency transient voltage that appears across the circuit
breaker contacts at or near current zero during arc interruption.

Key Points

 Caused by the exchange of energy between the system's inductance and capacitance.
 Determines whether the arc will extinguish or restrike.
 If Restriking Voltage > Dielectric Strength → Arc restrikes.
 If Dielectric Strength > Restriking Voltage → Arc is extinguished.

3. Recovery Voltage

Definition

Recovery voltage is the normal power-frequency (50 Hz) RMS voltage that appears across
the contacts after the final extinction of the arc.

Key Points

 Appears after the transient restriking voltage disappears.

 Approximately equal to the system voltage.
 Indicates successful interruption of the current.

Difference Between Arc Voltage, Restriking Voltage, and Recovery Voltage

Arc Voltage Restriking Voltage (TRV) Recovery Voltage

Appears at or near current Appears after final arc
Appears during arcing
zero extinction
 Arc Voltage Restriking Voltage (TRV) Recovery Voltage
Low value (except near current High-frequency transient
Normal 50 Hz RMS voltage
zero) voltage
Appears after successful
Maintains the arc May cause arc restrike
interruption

Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker (BOCB) – Short Exam Notes

Definition

A Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker (BOCB) is an oil circuit breaker that uses a large quantity of
insulating oil for both:

 Arc extinction (quenching)

 Insulation between live parts and earth

It is also called a Dead Tank Circuit Breaker because the tank is at earth potential.

Construction

Main parts:

1. Metal tank filled with transformer oil.

2. Fixed and moving contacts immersed in oil.
3. Air space above the oil.
4. Gas outlet for releasing gases.
Working Principle

 Under normal conditions, contacts remain closed.

 During a fault, contacts separate and an arc is formed.
 The arc heat decomposes oil into hydrogen gas.
 A gas bubble forms around the arc.
 Hydrogen cools the arc and removes ionized particles.
 At current zero, the arc is extinguished and the circuit is interrupted.

Arc Quenching Process

1. Arc forms between separating contacts.

2. Oil decomposes into hydrogen gas.
3. Gas bubble surrounds the arc.
4. Arc length increases → Arc resistance increases.
5. Hydrogen cools and de-ionizes the arc path.
6. At current zero, the arc is extinguished.

Memory Trick

Oil → Hydrogen Gas → Cooling + De-ionization → Arc Extinction

Advantages

 High dielectric strength.

 Good cooling effect.
 Oil absorbs arc energy.
 Requires less clearance between live parts and earth.
 Reliable and economical.

Disadvantages

 Risk of fire and explosion.

 Oil deteriorates due to carbonization.
 Regular maintenance required.
 Longer arcing time.
 Large quantity of oil needed.

Maintenance
  Check contact condition.
 Test dielectric strength of oil.
 Remove carbon deposits.
 Check oil level.
 Inspect tripping and closing mechanisms.

Applications

 Used in power systems up to about 33 kV.

 Suitable where high breaking capacity is not essential.
 Used in substations and industrial power distribution systems.

19.11 Low Oil Circuit Breaker (LOCB) – Short Exam Notes

Definition

A Low Oil Circuit Breaker (LOCB) uses a small quantity of oil only for arc extinction, while
solid insulating materials provide insulation.

Only about 10% of the oil is required for arc quenching.

Why was LOCB Developed?

In a Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker, most of the oil is used for insulation rather than arc extinction.
This results in:

 Large amount of oil

 Larger size and weight
 Higher cost
 Greater fire risk
 More maintenance

To overcome these problems, the Low Oil Circuit Breaker was developed.

Construction

A Low Oil Circuit Breaker has three chambers:

1. Supporting Chamber

 Filled with oil.

 Used only for insulation.
2. Circuit-Breaking Chamber

Contains:

 Upper and lower fixed contacts

 Moving contact
 Turbulator (arc control device)

3. Top Chamber

 Provides expansion space for oil.

 Prevents oil loss.

Working Principle

 Under normal conditions, contacts remain closed.

 During a fault, contacts separate and an arc is formed.
 Arc heat decomposes the oil into high-pressure gases.
 Oil is forced through the turbulator, which directs oil across the arc.
 The arc is cooled, de-ionized, and extinguished.

Advantages
  Requires less oil.
 Smaller size and weight.
 Lower fire risk.
 Less maintenance.
 More economical than Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker.

Disadvantages

 Oil carbonizes more quickly.

 Difficult to remove gases from the contact space.
 Dielectric strength of oil decreases rapidly.

Difference Between Bulk Oil CB and Low Oil CB

Bulk Oil CB Low Oil CB

Uses a large quantity of oil Uses a small quantity of oil
Oil is used for insulation and arc extinction Oil is used mainly for arc extinction
Larger size and weight Smaller and lighter
Higher fire risk Lower fire risk
More maintenance Less maintenance

Exam Tip (2 Marks)

Low Oil Circuit Breaker (LOCB):

A circuit breaker that uses a small amount of insulating oil for arc extinction and solid
insulation for electrical insulation. It is smaller, safer, and requires less maintenance than a
Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker.

Memory Trick

LOCB = Less Oil → Less Cost → Less Fire Risk → Less Maintenance

19.15 SF₆ (Sulphur Hexafluoride) Circuit Breaker – Short Exam Notes

Definition

An SF₆ Circuit Breaker is a circuit breaker that uses Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF₆) gas as the
arc-quenching and insulating medium.
 SF₆ is an electronegative gas, meaning it absorbs free electrons and quickly
extinguishes the arc.

Construction

Main parts:

 Fixed contact
 Moving contact
 Arc interruption chamber
 SF₆ gas reservoir
 Valve mechanism

Working Principle

1. Under normal conditions, contacts remain closed in SF₆ gas.

2. During a fault, contacts separate and an arc is formed.
3. High-pressure SF₆ gas flows over the arc.
4. SF₆ absorbs free electrons and forms negative ions.
5. The dielectric strength increases rapidly.
6. The arc is extinguished and the circuit is interrupted.

Advantages

 Excellent arc-quenching ability.

 High dielectric strength (about 2–3 times greater than air).
 Short arcing time.
 No fire hazard (SF₆ is non-flammable).
 No carbon deposits.
 Low maintenance.
 Quiet operation.
 Suitable for high-voltage and high-power systems.
Disadvantages

 SF₆ gas is expensive.

 Gas must be reconditioned/recycled after operation.
 Requires additional gas-handling equipment.

Applications

 High-voltage transmission systems.

 Substations (115–230 kV and above).
 Power stations.
 Industrial power systems.
 Locations with explosion hazards (e.g., coal mines).

Exam Tip (2 Marks)

SF₆ Circuit Breaker:

A circuit breaker that uses SF₆ gas for insulation and arc extinction. During interruption,
high-pressure SF₆ absorbs free electrons, rapidly increasing dielectric strength and
extinguishing the arc.

Memory Trick

SF₆ = Strong Electron Absorber → High Dielectric Strength → Fast Arc Extinction

19.16 Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB) – Teacher-Friendly Exam Answer

Definition

A Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB) is a circuit breaker in which high vacuum (10⁻⁷ to 10⁻⁵ torr)
is used as the arc-quenching medium. Since vacuum has very high dielectric strength, it
extinguishes the arc very quickly.

Principle

When the circuit breaker contacts separate in a vacuum:

  An arc is formed due to the ionization of metal vapours released from the contact
surfaces.
 These metal vapours, electrons, and ions quickly condense back onto the contacts
because there is no gas in the vacuum to keep the arc alive.
 As a result, the dielectric strength of the gap recovers very rapidly, and the arc is
extinguished at the first current zero.

Key Idea: In a VCB, the arc exists only because of metal vapours, not because
of air or gas.

Construction

A VCB consists of:

 Fixed contact
 Moving contact
 Vacuum chamber
 Arc shield (prevents metal vapours from depositing on the insulating surface)
 Glass or ceramic insulating envelope
 Stainless steel bellows (allows movement while maintaining the vacuum)

Working Principle

1. Under normal conditions, the contacts remain closed.

2. During a fault, the moving contact separates from the fixed contact.
3. An arc is produced due to metal vapours.
4. The vapours and ions quickly condense on the contact surfaces.
5. The dielectric strength recovers rapidly.
6. The arc is extinguished at the first current zero, interrupting the current.
Advantages

 Compact and reliable.

 Long service life.
 No fire or explosion hazard.
 No gas generation.
 Very low maintenance.
 Quiet operation.
 Can interrupt heavy fault currents.
 Can withstand lightning surges.

Disadvantages

 High initial cost.

 Difficult to repair if the vacuum chamber is damaged.
 Mostly used for medium-voltage systems.

Applications

 22 kV–66 kV distribution systems.

 Industrial power systems.
 Outdoor substations.
 Medium-voltage switchgear.

Exam Tip (3 Marks)

A Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB) uses high vacuum as the arc-quenching medium. When
the contacts separate, an arc is formed due to metal vapours. These vapours quickly
condense on the contacts, causing a rapid recovery of dielectric strength, so the arc is
extinguished at the first current zero. VCBs are compact, require little maintenance, and
are widely used in medium-voltage power systems.

Easy Memory Trick

Vacuum → Metal Vapours → Vapours Condense → Dielectric Strength Recovers → Arc

Extinguished
19.14 Air Blast Circuit Breaker (ABCB) – Short, Teacher-Friendly Exam Notes

Definition

An Air Blast Circuit Breaker (ABCB) is a circuit breaker that uses high-pressure compressed
air as the arc-quenching medium.

Principle

When the contacts separate, an arc is formed.

A high-pressure air blast is directed across the arc, which:

 Cools the arc.

 Removes ionized particles (de-ionization).
 Increases the dielectric strength between the contacts.

As a result, the arc is extinguished at the current zero.

Construction

Main parts:

 Fixed contact
 Moving contact
 Arc chamber
 Compressed air reservoir
 Air compressor
 Control valve
  Exhaust outlet

Working Principle

1. Under normal conditions, the contacts remain closed.

2. During a fault, the contacts separate and an arc is formed.
3. The valve opens and releases high-pressure compressed air into the arc chamber.
4. The air blast cools the arc and sweeps away ionized gases.
5. The dielectric strength increases rapidly.
6. The arc is extinguished at the first current zero, interrupting the current.

Advantages

 Fast arc extinction.

 No fire hazard (air is non-flammable).
 Suitable for repeated operations.
 No carbon deposits.
 Low maintenance.

Disadvantages

 Requires an air compressor and compressed air system.

 Noisy operation.
 Higher installation cost.
 Moisture in air may reduce insulation if not properly controlled.

Applications

 High-voltage substations.
 Power transmission systems.
 Frequent switching operations.

Difference Between Air Blast CB and SF₆ CB

Air Blast CB SF₆ CB

Uses compressed air Uses SF₆ gas
Arc extinguished by air blast Arc extinguished by electron absorption
 Air Blast CB SF₆ CB
Noisy operation Quiet operation
Lower dielectric strength Higher dielectric strength
Requires air compressor Requires SF₆ gas system

Exam Tip (2–3 Marks)

Air Blast Circuit Breaker (ABCB):

An Air Blast Circuit Breaker uses high-pressure compressed air as the arc-quenching
medium. When the contacts separate, compressed air is blown across the arc, cooling it
and removing ionized particles. This rapidly restores the dielectric strength and extinguishes
the arc at the current zero.

DC Circuit Breaker (DC CB) – Short, Teacher-Friendly Exam Notes

Definition

A DC Circuit Breaker (DC CB) is a circuit breaker used to protect DC circuits by interrupting
fault currents such as overloads and short circuits.

Unlike AC, DC current has no natural current zero, so interrupting the arc is more difficult.

Principle

 When the contacts separate, an arc is formed.

 Since DC current is continuous, the arc does not extinguish naturally.
 Therefore, the breaker uses the High Resistance Method to extinguish the arc.

The arc is extinguished by:

 Increasing the arc length.

 Cooling the arc.
 Splitting the arc.
 Using magnetic blow-out coils to force the arc into an arc chute.

This increases the arc resistance until the current becomes too small to sustain the arc.

Construction
Main parts:

 Fixed contact
 Moving contact
 Arc chute
 Arc runners
 Magnetic blow-out coil
 Operating mechanism

Working Principle

1. Under normal conditions, contacts remain closed.

2. During a fault, the contacts separate and an arc is formed.
3. The magnetic blow-out coil pushes the arc into the arc chute.
4. The arc becomes longer, cooler, and splits into smaller arcs.
5. Arc resistance increases.
6. The current falls to zero, and the arc is extinguished.

Advantages

 Protects DC circuits from faults.

 Fast interruption of fault current.
 Reliable operation.
 Suitable for battery and DC power systems.

Disadvantages

 Arc extinction is more difficult than in AC.

 Requires special arc-quenching devices.
 More expensive than comparable AC breakers.

Applications

 DC distribution systems.
 Battery banks.
 Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems.
 Electric vehicles (EVs).
 DC traction and railway systems.
 HVDC transmission systems.
Difference Between AC and DC Circuit Breakers

AC Circuit Breaker DC Circuit Breaker

Current has natural zero No natural current zero
Arc extinguishes at current zero Arc must be forced to extinguish
Uses current-zero method Uses high-resistance method
Easier arc interruption More difficult arc interruption

Exam Tip (2 Marks)

DC Circuit Breaker:
A DC Circuit Breaker protects DC circuits by interrupting fault current. Since DC has no
natural current zero, the arc is extinguished by the high resistance method, using arc
lengthening, cooling, splitting, and magnetic blow-out to increase arc resistance until the
current is interrupted.

Memory Trick

DC = No Current Zero → Increase Arc Resistance → Arc Extinguished

Protection of Alternators and Transformers

Some of the important faults which may occur on an alternator are :
(i) failure of prime-mover
(ii) failure of field
(iii) overcurrent
(v) overvoltage
(iv) overspeed
(vi) unbalanced loading
(vii) stator winding faults

22.2 Differential Protection of Alternators (Teacher-Friendly Short Notes)

Definition

Differential Protection is the most common method used to protect the stator winding of
an alternator from earth faults and phase-to-phase faults.

It works on the Merz-Price Circulating Current Principle.

Principle

The current entering the stator winding is compared with the current leaving it.

 Normal condition:
o Current entering = Current leaving
o Differential current = 0
o Relay does not operate.
 Fault condition:

o Current entering ≠ Current leaving

o Differential current flows through the relay.
o Relay trips the circuit breaker.

Formula

Id=I1−I2I_d = I_1 - I_2Id=I1−I2

where,

 I1I_1I1 = Current entering the winding

 I2I_2I2 = Current leaving the winding
 IdI_dId = Differential current

Construction

Main components:
  Two Current Transformers (CT₁ and CT₂) for each phase
 Differential relay
 Pilot wires
 Circuit breaker
 CT₁ is placed at the neutral end.
 CT₂ is placed at the line (terminal) end.

Working Principle

(a) Normal Condition

 Currents in both CTs are equal.

 Equal secondary currents circulate through pilot wires.
 No current flows through the relay.
 Circuit breaker remains closed.

(b) Earth Fault

 Current becomes unequal due to insulation failure.

 Differential current flows through the relay.
 Relay operates.
 Circuit breaker trips.
 Alternator field circuit is also disconnected.

(c) Phase-to-Phase Fault

  Short-circuit current makes CT currents unequal.
 Differential current flows through the relay.
 Relay trips the circuit breaker immediately.

Advantages

 Very fast protection.

 Sensitive to internal faults.
 Reliable operation.
 Protects against:

o Earth faults
o Phase-to-phase faults

Limitation

 Cannot protect the entire stator winding.

 About 80–85% of the winding is protected.
 The portion near the neutral point (15–20%) remains unprotected because the fault
current there may be too small to operate the relay.

Simple Diagram

CT1 CT2
│ │
│ │
-----●=========================●-----
│ Alternator │
│ Stator Winding │
│ │

Relay ← Differential Current

Exam Tip (3 Marks)

Differential protection of an alternator uses the Merz-Price circulating current principle.

Current transformers are installed at both ends of each stator winding. Under normal
conditions, both CT currents are equal, so no current flows through the relay. During an
internal fault, the CT currents become unequal, producing a differential current that
operates the relay and trips the circuit breaker to isolate the alternator.
Memory Trick

Equal Current → No Trip

Unequal Current → Differential Relay → Trip Circuit Breaker

Why is a Balancing Resistor Used in Differential Protection of an Alternator?

A balancing resistor is used to balance the impedance (resistance) of the pilot wire circuits
when the current transformers (CTs) and relays are not at equal distances.

Why is it needed?

In practice:

 One CT may be installed at the neutral end of the alternator.

 The other CT may be installed near the switchgear, which can be much farther away.
 Therefore, one pilot wire is longer than the other.

Since a longer wire has higher resistance, the two CT secondary circuits become
unbalanced.

This may cause:

 A small current to flow through the differential relay even under normal conditions.
 The relay may maloperate (false trip).

Solution

A balancing resistor is inserted in the shorter pilot wire to make its total resistance equal
to that of the longer pilot wire.

As a result:

 Both CT secondary circuits have equal impedance.

 No unwanted differential current flows during normal operation.
 The relay operates only during an actual internal fault.

Short Exam Answer (2 Marks)

Balancing resistors are used to equalize the resistance (impedance) of unequal pilot wire
lengths in differential protection. This prevents false operation of the differential relay
under normal conditions and ensures accurate fault detection.

Easy Memory Trick

Unequal wire length → Unequal resistance → False relay operation → Add balancing
resistor → Equal resistance → Correct operation.

2.3 Modified Differential Protection for Alternators (Teacher-Friendly Short Notes)

Why is Modified Differential Protection Needed?

In some alternators, the neutral is earthed through a high resistance.

 High earthing resistance limits the earth-fault current.

 Due to the small fault current, the ordinary differential relay may not operate.
 Reducing the relay setting too much may cause false tripping during external faults.

Solution: Use Modified Differential Protection, which gives higher sensitivity for earth
faults while maintaining stability for phase faults.

Construction

The modification is only in the relay connections.

It consists of:

 Two Phase Relays (PA and PC) → Protect against phase-to-phase faults.
 One Earth Relay (ER) → Protects against earth faults only.
 Balancing Resistor (BR) → Balances the relay circuit.

Working Principle

1. Normal Condition

 Current entering = Current leaving.

 CT secondary currents are equal.
 No differential current flows.
 All relays remain inactive.

2. Earth Fault

 CT currents become unequal.

 Differential current flows through the Earth Relay (ER).
  Only ER operates.
 Circuit breaker trips.

3. Phase-to-Phase Fault

 Differential current flows through the Phase Relays (PA and PC).
 Earth Relay (ER) does not operate.
 Phase relays trip the circuit breaker.

Advantages

 More sensitive to earth faults.

 Reliable operation even with high-resistance grounding.
 Avoids false tripping.
 Separately detects earth faults and phase faults.

Simple Diagram

 PA, PC → Phase-fault relays

 ER → Earth-fault relay
 BR → Balancing resistor
Difference Between Ordinary and Modified Differential Protection

Ordinary Differential Protection Modified Differential Protection

Uses three differential relays Uses two phase relays + one earth relay
Less sensitive to earth faults More sensitive to earth faults
Suitable for low-resistance grounding Suitable for high-resistance grounding
Same relay protects all faults Separate relays for earth and phase faults

Exam Tip (3 Marks)

Modified Differential Protection is used when the alternator neutral is grounded through a
high resistance. It uses two phase relays (PA, PC) and one earth relay (ER). During an earth
fault, only the earth relay operates. During a phase-to-phase fault, only the phase relays
operate. This provides high sensitivity for earth faults without affecting the stability of the
protection system.

Easy Memory Trick

 ER → Earth Fault
 PA & PC → Phase Fault
 Modified Scheme = Better Earth-Fault Protection

22.4 Balanced Earth-Fault Protection (Teacher-Friendly Short Notes)

Definition

Balanced Earth-Fault Protection is a protection scheme used for small alternators where
the neutral ends of the three-phase windings are internally connected, making Merz-Price
differential protection impossible.

It protects only against earth faults and does not protect against phase-to-phase faults.

Why is it Used?

In small alternators:

 The neutral ends are connected internally.

 CTs cannot be installed at the neutral end of each phase.
 Therefore, balanced earth-fault protection is used instead.

Construction
The scheme consists of:

 Three line Current Transformers (CTs) (one in each phase)

 One Neutral Current Transformer (NCT) in the neutral-to-earth connection
 Earth-fault relay

The relay is connected across the CT secondary circuits.

Working Principle

1. Normal Condition

 The sum of the three-phase currents is zero.

 Neutral current is also zero.
 No current flows through the relay.
 Relay remains inactive.

2. External Earth Fault (Outside Protected Zone)

 Current in the line CTs equals the current in the neutral CT.
 The currents balance each other.
 No differential current flows through the relay.
 Relay does not operate.

3. Internal Earth Fault (Inside Protected Zone)

 Line CT current and neutral CT current become unequal.

 A differential current flows through the relay.
 Relay operates.
 Circuit breaker trips and disconnects the alternator.

Advantages

 Simple and economical.

 Suitable for small alternators.
 Reliable protection against internal earth faults.

Limitation
  Protects only earth faults.
 Does not protect phase-to-phase faults unless they develop into earth faults.

Simple Diagram

Relay connected to CTs

Difference Between Differential Protection and Balanced Earth-Fault Protection

Differential Protection Balanced Earth-Fault Protection

Protects earth and phase faults Protects only earth faults
CTs at both ends of each phase Three line CTs + one neutral CT
Used for large alternators Used for small alternators
Merz-Price principle Current balance principle

Exam Tip (3 Marks)

Balanced Earth-Fault Protection is used for small alternators where CTs cannot be installed
at the neutral end of each phase. It uses three line CTs and one neutral CT. Under normal
conditions or external earth faults, the CT currents balance and the relay does not operate.
During an internal earth fault, the currents become unequal, producing a differential
current that operates the relay and trips the circuit breaker.

Easy Memory Trick

 3 Line CT + 1 Neutral CT
 Equal Current → No Trip
  Internal Earth Fault → Relay Trips
 Protects Earth Fault Only

22.5 Stator Inter-turn Protection (Teacher-Friendly Short Notes)

Definition

Stator Inter-turn Protection protects an alternator against short circuits between turns of
the same phase winding (inter-turn faults).

Merz-Price differential protection cannot detect inter-turn faults, so a

separate protection scheme is required for multi-turn generators.

Why is Inter-turn Protection Needed?

Merz-Price differential protection compares the current entering and leaving the stator
winding.

In an inter-turn fault:

 The fault current flows only between the shorted turns (local loop).
 The current entering and leaving the winding remains almost the same.
 Therefore, the differential relay cannot detect the fault.

Where is it Used?

 Single-turn generators (large turbo-generators): ❌Not required.

 Multi-turn generators (hydroelectric generators): ✅Required.

These generators have double-wound armatures, making inter-turn protection possible.

Construction

Main components:

 Double stator windings (S₁ and S₂) for each phase.

 Two Current Transformers (CTs).
 Inter-turn relay (R₁).

Working Principle
1. Normal Condition

 Currents in windings S₁ and S₂ are equal.

 CT secondary currents are also equal.
 No current flows through relay R₁.
 Relay remains inactive.

2. Inter-turn Fault

 A short circuit occurs between turns of one winding (e.g., S₁).

 Current in S₁ becomes different from S₂.
 CT secondary currents become unequal.
 Differential current flows through relay R₁.
 Relay operates and trips the circuit breaker.

Advantages

 Detects inter-turn faults.

 Prevents damage to stator windings.
 Fast and reliable protection for multi-turn generators.

Limitation

 Not required for single-turn generators.

 Used only in generators having double stator windings.

Simple Diagram
  S₁, S₂ → Double stator windings
 CT₁, CT₂ → Current transformers
 R₁ → Inter-turn relay

Difference Between Differential Protection and Inter-turn Protection

Differential Protection Inter-turn Protection

Detects phase-to-phase and earth faults Detects turn-to-turn faults
Uses CTs at both ends of winding Uses CTs on duplicate windings
Cannot detect inter-turn faults Specifically detects inter-turn faults
Used in all alternators Mainly used in multi-turn hydro-generators

Exam Tip (3 Marks)

Stator Inter-turn Protection protects a generator against turn-to-turn faults in the same
phase winding. It is mainly used in multi-turn hydroelectric generators with double stator
windings (S₁ and S₂). Under normal conditions, the currents in both windings are equal, so
the relay does not operate. During an inter-turn fault, the currents become unequal,
producing a differential current that operates relay R₁ and trips the circuit breaker.

Easy Memory Trick

 Merz-Price → Phase & Earth Faults

 Inter-turn Protection → Turn-to-Turn Faults
 Equal S₁ = S₂ → No Trip
 Unequal S₁ ≠ S₂ → Relay Trips
22.1-22.4

22.8 Buchholz Relay (Teacher-Friendly Short Notes)

Definition

A Buchholz Relay is a gas-operated protective relay used in oil-immersed transformers

with a conservator. It protects the transformer from internal faults by giving an alarm for
minor faults and tripping the circuit breaker for severe faults.

Used for transformers above 750 kVA.

Location

The Buchholz relay is installed in the pipe connecting the main transformer tank and the
conservator.

Conservator
│
│
[Buchholz Relay]
│
│
Main Transformer Tank

Construction

A Buchholz relay consists of:

 Upper float with mercury switch

 Lower flap (hinged vane) with mercury switch
 A chamber placed between the main tank and the conservator
 Upper element → Alarm
 Lower element → Trip
Working Principle

1. Incipient (Minor) Fault

Examples:

 Insulation deterioration
 Overheating
 Loose connections

Working:

 Heat decomposes transformer oil.

 Hydrogen gas is produced.
 Gas accumulates in the relay chamber.
 Float moves downward.
 Mercury switch closes.
 Alarm is given.

2. Severe Internal Fault

Examples:

 Winding short circuit

 Core fault

Working:

 A large amount of gas is produced.

 Oil rushes rapidly toward the conservator.
 Oil flow tilts the lower flap.
 Mercury switch closes.
 Circuit breaker trips.
 Transformer is disconnected from the supply.

Advantages

 Simple and reliable.

 Detects incipient (slow-developing) faults at an early stage.
 Protects the transformer from serious internal damage.
 Gives both alarm and trip functions.
Disadvantages

 Works only with oil-immersed transformers having a conservator.

 Cannot detect external faults or faults above the oil level.
 Separate protection is needed for cables.

Applications

 Oil-immersed transformers
 Transformers with conservator tanks
 Usually used for transformers above 750 kVA

Simple Diagram

Exam Tip (3 Marks)

A Buchholz relay is a gas-actuated relay used in oil-filled transformers with a conservator.

It is installed between the main tank and the conservator. During a minor (incipient) fault,
gas accumulates and lifts the upper float, giving an alarm. During a major internal fault,
rapid oil flow tilts the lower flap, which operates the trip circuit and disconnects the
transformer.

Easy Memory Trick

 Gas → Float → Alarm

 Oil Flow → Flap → Trip

Remember:

 Upper Float = Alarm

 Lower Flap = Trip

22.9 Earth-Fault (Leakage) Protection (Teacher-Friendly Short Notes)

Definition

Earth-fault (Leakage) Protection is used to detect leakage current from the transformer
winding to earth due to insulation failure.

An earth-fault relay (low-setting overcurrent relay) detects this leakage current and trips
the circuit breaker before serious damage occurs.

Why is it Needed?

 Earth-fault current is usually much smaller than a short-circuit current.

 It may continue for a long time.
 It can damage the winding insulation.
 Therefore, early detection is necessary.

Core-Balance Leakage Protection

The most common method is Core-Balance Leakage Protection (CBCT).

Construction

It consists of:

 Core-Balance Current Transformer (CBCT)

 Earth-fault relay
  Circuit breaker

The three phase conductors (R, Y, B) pass through the same CT core.

Working Principle

Advantages

 Detects earth faults at an early stage.

 Simple and reliable.
 Protects transformer insulation from severe damage.
 Works even for small leakage currents.

Limitation

 Detects only earth faults.

 Does not protect against phase-to-phase faults.

Simple Diagram
Exam Tip (3 Marks)

Earth-fault (Leakage) Protection uses a Core-Balance Current Transformer (CBCT) and an

earth-fault relay. Under normal conditions, the vector sum of the three-phase currents is
zero, so the relay does not operate. During an earth fault, the current sum becomes non-
zero, producing residual flux in the CT. This induces current in the relay, which trips the
circuit breaker and disconnects the faulty transformer.

Easy Memory Trick

 Normal: IR+IY+IB=0I_R + I_Y + I_B = 0IR+IY+IB=0 → No Trip

 Earth Fault: IR+IY+IB≠0I_R + I_Y + I_B \neq 0IR+IY+IB =0 → Relay Trips

Remember: CBCT = Core-Balance Current Transformer = Earth-Fault Detection.

24.2 Causes of Overvoltages (Teacher-Friendly Short Notes)

Definition
Overvoltage is a voltage that exceeds the normal operating voltage of a power system. It
can damage insulation and electrical equipment.

There are two main causes of overvoltages:

1. Internal Causes
2. External Causes (Lightning)

Classification of Overvoltages

Overvoltages
│
├── Internal Causes
│ ├─ Switching Surges
│ ├─ Insulation Failure
│ ├─ Arcing Ground
│ └─ Resonance
│
└── External Cause
└─ Lightning

Note: Internal overvoltages are usually less than 2 times the normal voltage,
whereas lightning surges can be several times the normal voltage.

1. Internal Causes of Overvoltages

Internal overvoltages are caused by sudden changes in circuit conditions.

(a) Switching Surges

Definition

Overvoltages produced due to switching operations (opening or closing of circuit breakers).

Causes

 Switching ON an unloaded transmission line.

 Switching OFF a loaded transmission line.
 Current chopping in air-blast circuit breakers.

Effects

 Produces temporary high voltage.

  May stress insulation.

(b) Insulation Failure

Definition

Occurs when the insulation between a conductor and earth breaks down, causing an earth
fault.

Effects

 Earth-fault current flows.

 Overvoltage is produced.
 May damage insulation.

(c) Arcing Ground

Definition

Arcing ground is the intermittent arc that occurs during a line-to-ground fault in a 3-phase
system with an ungrounded (isolated) neutral.

Effects

 Produces severe voltage oscillations.

 Voltage may become 3–4 times the normal value.
 Can damage insulation.

Prevention

 Earth (ground) the neutral.

(d) Resonance

Definition

Resonance occurs when:

(i.e., inductive reactance equals capacitive reactance.)

Effects

 Produces very high voltage.

 May occur due to harmonics or underground cables.

2. External Cause – Lightning

Definition

Lightning is a sudden electrical discharge:

 Between cloud and earth,

 Between two clouds,
 Or within the same cloud.

Cause

 Clouds become highly charged.

 When the voltage exceeds the dielectric strength of air, lightning occurs.

Effects

 Produces extremely high voltage surges.

 Can damage transmission lines, transformers, and other equipment.

Comparison: Internal vs External Overvoltages

Internal Overvoltage External Overvoltage

Caused by switching, faults, resonance Caused by lightning
Usually less than 2 × normal voltage Can be many times the normal voltage
Lower severity Very severe
Controlled by proper insulation Requires lightning protection devices

Exam Tip (5 Marks)

Internal Causes of Overvoltages

1. Switching Surges – Produced during switching operations such as opening or closing

circuit breakers.
2. Insulation Failure – Breakdown of insulation between conductor and earth causes
earth faults and overvoltages.
 3. Arcing Ground – Intermittent arc in an ungrounded three-phase system during a line-
to-ground fault; may produce 3–4 times normal voltage.
4. Resonance – Occurs when XL=XC, producing dangerously high voltages.

External Cause

 Lightning – A high-voltage electrical discharge between clouds or between a cloud

and the earth. It produces very high surge voltages and is the most severe cause of
overvoltage.

24.5 Mechanism of Lightning Discharge (Short & Teacher-Friendly Answer)

Mechanism of Lightning Discharge:

1. Charge formation
1. A charged cloud passes over the earth and induces opposite charge on the
ground.
2. As the cloud charge increases, the potential difference between cloud and
earth increases.
2. Leader streamer formation

1. When the electric field becomes strong enough (about 5–10 kV/cm), the air
breaks down.
2. A leader streamer (pilot streamer) starts moving from the cloud toward the
earth.
3. It carries a small current (less than 100 A) and moves in steps, so it is called a
stepped leader.
3. Return streamer

1. When the stepped leader comes close to the ground, an upward return
streamer rises from the earth or a tall object.
2. It meets the stepped leader, creating a complete conducting path.
4. Lightning stroke

1. A very large current (10–90 kA) flows through this path.

2. This sudden discharge is seen as a bright flash of lightning.
3. The intense heating of air causes thunder.
Important Points

 A lightning flash usually consists of several strokes, not just one.

 About 87% of lightning originates from negatively charged clouds, while 13% comes
from positively charged clouds.
 Approximately 100 lightning strokes occur every second worldwide.

24.6 Types of Lightning Strokes (Short & Teacher-Friendly Answer)

There are two types of lightning strokes on a power system:

1. Direct Stroke

 Lightning directly strikes the power equipment (overhead line, tower, or substation).
 It produces very high overvoltage and may cause insulation failure.

Types of Direct Stroke:

(a) Stroke A
  Lightning travels directly from the cloud to the overhead line.
 It usually strikes tall objects.
 Protection is possible using earth wires/lightning arresters.

Cloud ☁
│
⚡
──────────── Overhead Line

(b) Stroke B

 Lightning first occurs between clouds.

 The remaining charge then suddenly discharges to earth, sometimes striking the
overhead line.
 It does not depend on object height, so protection is difficult.

Cloud P ☁⚡☁Cloud Q
│
⚡
──────────── Overhead Line / Ground

3. Indirect Stroke

 Lightning does not directly hit the line.

 A charged cloud induces opposite charges on the conductor.
 When the cloud discharges, these induced charges travel along the line as travelling
waves, producing overvoltage.

Charged Cloud ☁(+)

↓ Induction
────────────── Overhead Line
← Travelling Wave →

Comparison (Exam Point of View)

 Direct Stroke Indirect Stroke
Lightning does not hit the line
Lightning directly hits the line/equipment.
directly.
Produces very high overvoltage. Produces induced overvoltage.
Rare occurrence. More common.
Stroke A can be protected; Stroke B is difficult to Causes most transmission-line
protect. surges.

Key Points to Remember

 Direct Stroke: Direct hit on power system → very severe damage.

 Indirect Stroke: No direct hit → travelling waves due to induced charges.
 Most lightning surges in transmission lines are caused by indirect strokes.

24.8 Protection Against Lightning (Short & Teacher-Friendly Answer)

Lightning surges can damage power system equipment such as generators, transformers,
substations, and transmission lines. The main protection methods are:

1. Earthing Screen
2. Overhead Ground Wire
3. Lightning Arrester (Surge Diverter)

1. Earthing Screen

Definition:
An earthing screen is a network of copper conductors placed above the equipment in a
power station or substation and connected to earth.

Working:

 When lightning directly strikes the station, the screen provides a low-resistance path
to ground.
 The lightning current flows safely to earth instead of passing through the equipment.

Advantage:

 Protects power stations and substations from direct lightning strokes.

Limitation:

 Does not protect against travelling waves coming through transmission lines.

Figure
 Lightning ⚡
│
══════════════════ Earthing Screen
│ │
Equipment
│
Earth

2. Overhead Ground Wire (Shield Wire)

Definition:
A ground wire is installed above transmission line conductors and connected to earth at
every tower.

Working:

 It intercepts direct lightning strokes.

 The lightning current flows through the ground wire and safely enters the earth.

Advantages:

 Protects transmission lines from direct lightning.

 Reduces induced voltages.
 Provides damping of travelling surges.

Disadvantages:

 Increases installation cost.

 If broken, it may fall on conductors and cause a short circuit.

Figure

Ground Wire
───────────────
⚡
─────────────── Line Conductor
─────────────── Line Conductor

Tower
│
Earth

3. Lightning Arrester (Surge Diverter)

Definition:
A lightning arrester is connected between the line and earth near equipment.

Working:

 During normal operation, it acts as an insulator.

 During a lightning surge, it provides a low-resistance path to earth.
 After the surge, it returns to its insulating state.

Use:

 Protects transformers, generators, substations, and other equipment from both

direct lightning surges and travelling waves.

⚡ Lightning Arresters (Surge Diverters)

A lightning arrester is a protective device used in power systems to protect equipment

from high-voltage surges caused by lightning or switching operations.

🔹 Why it is needed

 Earthing screen and ground wires protect against direct lightning strokes only
 They cannot protect against traveling waves (surges) reaching equipment
 So, lightning arresters are used at the terminal end to protect equipment like:
o Transformers
o Generators
o Substations

🔹 Working Principle

A lightning arrester provides a:

 ❌High resistance path during normal voltage → no current flows to ground

 ✅Low resistance path during overvoltage → surge current goes safely to earth

⚡ Basic Construction

A surge diverter consists of:

 Spark gap (air gap)

 Non-linear resistor (valve element)
  Ground connection

🔹 Working Action

(i) Normal condition

 Gap does NOT conduct

 No current flows to earth

(ii) Overvoltage condition (lightning surge)

 Spark gap breaks down

 Arc forms
 Surge current flows to earth

(iii) After surge

 Non-linear resistor increases resistance

 Arc extinguishes
 System returns to normal

⚡ Types of Lightning Arresters

Lightning arresters (surge diverters) are classified based on their construction and operating
principle. The main types are:

1🔹 Rod Gap Arrester

 Simplest type of arrester

 Two metal rods with an air gap (one connected to line, one to earth)

Working:

 Normal voltage → gap does not conduct

 Overvoltage → spark over occurs → surge goes to earth

Limitations:

 Arc may continue after surge

 Can damage system
 Affected by weather

👉 Used only as backup protection

2️⃣🔹 Horn Gap Arrester

 Two horn-shaped electrodes with increasing gap distance upward

 Connected with resistance and sometimes choke coil

Working:

 Arc starts at small gap

 Arc moves upward due to heat and magnetic effect
 Eventually extinguishes

Advantages:

 Self-clearing arc

Limitations:

 Slow operation
 Can fail due to external factors (dust, birds, corrosion)

👉 Used as secondary protection

3️⃣🔹 Multigap Arrester

 Series of small metal cylinders separated by air gaps

 Some gaps are shunted by resistances

Working:

 Overvoltage breaks down series gaps

 Surge current flows through low-resistance path to ground
 After surge, arc extinguishes due to resistors

Use:

 Suitable for systems up to ~33 kV

4️⃣🔹 Expulsion Type Arrester

 Rod gap + fibre tube containing arc chamber

 Arc produces gas that blows it out
Working:

 Overvoltage → arc forms in tube

 Gas pressure increases → arc is extinguished

Advantages:

 Cheap
 Blocks power-frequency follow current

Limitations:

 Limited operations
 Not suitable for enclosed systems

5🔹 Valve Type Arrester ⭐(Most Important)

 Combination of:

o Spark gaps
o Non-linear resistor discs (Thyrite/Metrosil)

Working:

 Normal condition: no conduction

 Surge condition: spark gap breaks → surge flows through non-linear resistor
 After surge: resistance increases → arc stops

Advantages:

 Very fast response

 Highly reliable
 Best protection for high-voltage systems

Applications:

 Substations
 Transformers
 Transmission systems (high voltage)

🔹 Quick Summary Table

Type Speed Reliability Use

 Type Speed Reliability Use
Rod Gap Low Poor Backup only
Horn Gap Medium Low Secondary
Multigap Medium Moderate Up to 33 kV
Expulsion Fast Moderate Distribution lines
Valve Type Very Fast High High-voltage systems

⚡ Surge Absorber

A surge absorber is a protective device used in power systems to reduce the steepness of
the surge wave front by absorbing or dissipating surge energy.

🔹 Why Surge Absorber is Needed

When lightning or switching surges travel along transmission lines:

 They become travelling waves

 If they reach equipment terminals → damage occurs
 Damage depends on:
o ✔Surge amplitude
o ✔Wave front steepness (more dangerous when steep)

👉 So, surge absorbers are used to reduce the steepness of the wave front, not just divert it.

⚡ Definition

A surge absorber is a device that reduces the steepness of a surge wave front by
absorbing its energy.

🔹 Surge Diverter vs Surge Absorber

Feature Surge Diverter Surge Absorber

Action Diverts surge to earth Absorbs surge energy
Purpose Protection by grounding Protection by energy reduction
Result Surge bypasses equipment Surge is weakened
🔹 Types of Surge Absorbers

1🔹 Capacitor (Condenser Type)

Working:

 Connected between line and earth



Capacitive reactance:

Behavior:

 At high frequency (surge) → low reactance → acts like short circuit → surge goes to
earth
 At power frequency → high reactance → negligible current

Limitation:

 Does not truly “absorb” energy

 It mainly reflects wave energy, not dissipate it

2️⃣🔹 Choke–Resistance Combination

Construction:

 Choke (inductor) in parallel with resistance

 Connected in series with line

Working:

 Choke offers high reactance to high-frequency surges

 Surge current is forced through resistor
 Energy is dissipated as heat in R

Key Idea:
  ✔Inductor blocks surge
 ✔Resistor absorbs energy

3️⃣🔹 Ferranti Surge Absorber ⭐

Construction:

 Air-cored inductor in series with line

 Surrounding earthed metallic sheet (dissipator)

Working:

 Acts like a transformer

o Primary: inductor
o Secondary: metallic sheet (short-circuited)
 Surge energy induces currents in dissipator
 Energy is converted into heat

Application:

 Mainly used for transformer protection

🔹 Key Points for Exams

 Surge absorbers reduce wave steepness, not just divert surge

 They protect equipment from high-frequency travelling waves
 Main types:

1. Capacitor type
2. Choke–resistance type
3. Ferranti surge absorber

1. What is a Fuse?

Definition
A fuse is the simplest electrical protection device used to protect electrical circuits and
equipment from overload and short-circuit currents.

It consists of a thin metal wire (or strip) connected in series with the circuit.

When excessive current flows, the fuse wire melts (blows), opening the circuit and stopping
the current. This protects the equipment from damage.

Desirable Characteristics of a Fuse Element

Advantages of Fuse

1. Simple and cheapest protective device.

2. Requires no maintenance.
3. Operates automatically during fault conditions.
4. Can interrupt heavy short-circuit currents safely.
5. Small-size fuses limit fault current.
6. Inverse time-current characteristic provides good overcurrent protection.
7. Operates faster than many circuit breakers for severe faults.

Disadvantages of Fuse

1. Selective coordination between series fuses is difficult.

2. Not suitable for earth fault protection in heavy-current circuits.
3. Fuse wire must be replaced after every operation.
 4. Time-current characteristic may not match some equipment (e.g., induction motors
with high starting current).

Important Terms (with Equations)

(i) Current Rating

Definition:
The maximum current that a fuse can carry continuously without melting.

(ii) Fusing Current

Definition:
The minimum current at which the fuse element melts.

It is always greater than the current rating.

(v) Prospective Current

The rms value of the fault current that would flow if the fuse were replaced by a
conductor of negligible resistance.

It is the maximum possible fault current.

(vi) Cut-off Current

The maximum fault current that actually flows before the fuse interrupts the circuit.

Always

Cut-off Current<Prospective Current

because the fuse melts before the fault current reaches its maximum value.
(vii) Pre-arcing Time (tp0)

Time from the occurrence of the fault until the fuse element melts.

(viii) Arcing Time (tp)

Time from melting of the fuse element until the arc is completely extinguished.

Types of Fuses

Fuses are classified into:

A. Low Voltage (LV) Fuses

1. Semi-Enclosed Rewirable (Kit-Kat) Fuse

Construction

 Porcelain base
 Porcelain carrier
 Tinned copper fuse wire

Working

 During a fault, the fuse wire melts.

 The carrier is removed and a new wire is fitted.

Advantages

 Cheap
 Easy replacement
 Simple construction

Disadvantages

 Fuse wire deteriorates due to oxidation.

 Low breaking capacity.
 Incorrect wire replacement is possible.
 Performance depends on ambient conditions.

Applications
  Domestic wiring
 Lighting circuits

2. High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) Cartridge Fuse

Construction

 Ceramic body
 Silver fuse element
 Quartz or silica powder
 Metal end caps

Working

 Under fault conditions, the silver element melts.

 The filling material extinguishes the arc quickly.

Advantages

 High-speed operation
 High breaking capacity
 Reliable
 Maintenance-free
 Long service life

Disadvantages

 Must be replaced after operation

 Arc heat may affect nearby switches

Applications

 Low-voltage distribution systems

 Industrial protection

B. High Voltage (HV) Fuses

1. Cartridge Type Fuse

 Similar to HRC fuse but designed for high voltage.

 May use helical or parallel fuse elements.

2. Liquid Type Fuse

 Filled with carbon tetrachloride.

 Suitable for systems up to about 33 kV.

3. Metal-Clad Oil-Immersed Fuse

 Used for very high-voltage applications.

 Can interrupt large short-circuit currents.
 Developed as an alternative to oil circuit breakers

Protection of Busbars

What is a Busbar?

A busbar is a thick copper or aluminum conductor used in substations and power stations
to collect electrical power from incoming feeders and distribute it to outgoing feeders.

Why is Busbar Protection Important?

Busbars are the heart of a power system. If a fault occurs on a busbar:

 All circuits connected to it may be disconnected.

 A large portion of the power system loses supply.
 Equipment like transformers and generators may be damaged.
 System stability is affected.

Therefore, busbar protection must operate very quickly and accurately.

The protection zone generally includes:

 Busbars
 Circuit breakers (CBs)
 Isolators (disconnecting switches)

1. Differential Current Protection (Most Important)

Principle

Differential protection works on Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL).

According to KCL,

Current entering a busbar = Current leaving the busbar

Mathematically,

Current Transformers (CTs) are installed on every feeder connected to the busbar. Their
secondary currents are connected to a differential relay.

(A) Normal Condition

Current entering equals current leaving.

Since relay current is zero,

Relay does not operate.

(B) Internal Fault

Suppose a fault occurs on the busbar.

Now,

Incoming current becomes larger than outgoing current.

Relay operates.

Circuit breakers trip.

Faulty busbar is isolated.

Advantages

 Very fast protection

 Highly selective
 Sensitive
 Reliable for internal faults

Disadvantage

During an external fault, one CT may saturate.

This causes unequal CT secondary currents.

The relay may incorrectly detect a differential current.

This unwanted operation is called maloperation.

To overcome this problem, use:

 Biased (percentage) differential relay

 High impedance differential relay

2. High Impedance Relay Scheme

This scheme is an improved form of differential protection.

It is used to prevent false tripping caused by CT saturation.

Construction

It consists of:

 Sensitive DC polarized relay

 Stabilizing resistor
 Tuning circuit (L-C circuit)
 Non-linear resistor (Thyrite)
 High-set overcurrent relay

Working

Normal Condition

CT secondary currents are equal.

Relay current is nearly zero.

Relay remains inactive.

Internal Fault

Large differential current appears.

Relay operates.

Circuit breakers trip immediately.

External Fault

CT saturation may occur.

However, the high impedance prevents enough current from flowing through the relay.

Therefore,

Relay does not trip.

Purpose of Components

Sensitive DC Polarized Relay

Detects very small differential currents.

Tuning Circuit (L-C Circuit)

Makes the relay sensitive only to the fundamental frequency (50 Hz).

Rejects harmonic currents.

Thyrite (Non-linear Resistor)

Limits excessive voltage produced during internal faults.

Protects the relay.

High-set Overcurrent Relay

Provides additional protection for severe internal faults.

Advantages

 Prevents false operation due to CT saturation.

 High stability.
 Fast operation.
 Highly reliable.

3. Frame Leakage Protection

This protection is mainly used for

Metal-clad switchgear.
Why is it Needed?

In metal-clad switchgear, all equipment is enclosed inside a metal frame.

If insulation fails,

The metal frame may become live.

This is dangerous.

Frame leakage protection detects this condition.

Principle

All metallic frames are:

 Electrically bonded together

 Insulated from earth

A frame leakage relay is connected between the metal frame and earth.

Normal Condition

No leakage current flows.

Relay remains inactive.

Internal Fault

Suppose insulation fails.

Current leaks to the metal frame.

Leakage current flows through the relay.

Relay operates.

Circuit breakers trip.

Fault is isolated.
Advantages

 Simple protection scheme.

 Sensitive.
 Protects personnel from electric shock.
 Protects metal-clad switchgear against earth faults.

Protection of Transmission Line (Easy Exam Notes)

Protection of transmission lines is the process of detecting faults quickly and disconnecting
the faulty section from the power system to ensure safety, reliability, and continuity of
power supply.

Objectives of Transmission Line Protection

 1. Protect equipment from damage.
2. Ensure safety of people and equipment.
3. Maintain continuity of power supply.
4. Isolate only the faulty section.
5. Improve system stability and reliability.

Types of Faults in Transmission Lines

1. Single Line-to-Ground (L-G) Fault

 One phase touches the ground.

 Most common fault (about 70–80%).

2. Line-to-Line (L-L) Fault

 Two phase conductors touch each other.

3. Double Line-to-Ground (L-L-G) Fault

 Two phases touch each other and the ground.

4. Three-Phase (L-L-L) Fault

 All three phases short together.

 Most severe fault.

Requirements of an Ideal Protection System

 Reliability – Operates whenever required.

 Selectivity – Disconnects only the faulty section.
 Speed – Clears faults quickly.
 Sensitivity – Detects even small faults.
 Stability – Does not operate during normal conditions.
 Economy – Provides adequate protection at reasonable cost.

Protective Devices Used

1. Relays

A relay detects abnormal conditions and sends a trip signal to the circuit breaker.

Common relays:
  Overcurrent Relay
 Distance (Impedance) Relay
 Differential Relay
 Directional Relay

2. Circuit Breaker (CB)

 Opens the faulty circuit after receiving a trip signal from the relay.
 Interrupts fault current safely.

3. Current Transformer (CT)

 Steps down current to a safe value.

 Supplies current to relays and measuring instruments.

4. Potential Transformer (PT) or Voltage Transformer (VT)

 Steps down high voltage.

 Supplies voltage to protective relays.

Methods of Transmission Line Protection

Overcurrent Protection of Transmission Lines

Definition

Overcurrent protection is a protection scheme in which an overcurrent relay monitors the

current flowing through a transmission line. When the current exceeds a preset value
(pickup current) due to a fault, the relay sends a trip signal to the circuit breaker (CB),
which disconnects the faulty line.
 

Main Components

 Current Transformer (CT): Measures line current.

 Overcurrent Relay: Detects overcurrent.
 Circuit Breaker (CB): Isolates the faulty line.

Advantages

 Simple and economical.

 Easy to install and maintain.
 Reliable for radial systems.
 Provides backup protection.

Disadvantages

 Not suitable for long transmission lines.

 Cannot accurately locate faults.
  Requires proper relay coordination.
 Directional relays are needed in interconnected systems.

Distance Protection of Transmission Line

Definition

Distance protection is a protection scheme in which a distance relay measures the

impedance between the relay location and the fault point. If the measured impedance is
less than the preset value, the relay trips the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty line.

Since the impedance of a transmission line is proportional to its length, the relay can
estimate the distance to the fault.
Working Principle

 Under normal conditions, the measured impedance is high, and the relay does not
operate.
 During a fault, the voltage decreases and the current increases, causing the
measured impedance to decrease.
 If the impedance is below the relay setting, the relay sends a trip signal to the circuit
breaker.

Main Components

 Current Transformer (CT): Measures line current.

 Potential Transformer (PT): Measures line voltage.
 Distance Relay: Calculates impedance (Z=V/IZ=V/IZ=V/I).
 Circuit Breaker (CB): Disconnects the faulty line.

Protection Zones

Zone-1
  Covers 80–90% of the protected line.
 Instantaneous operation (no intentional delay).

Zone-2

 Covers the remaining 10–20% of the protected line and about 50% of the next line.
 Operates with a time delay (0.3–0.5 s).
 Provides backup protection.

Zone-3

 Covers the entire protected line and the next transmission line.
 Operates with a longer time delay (≈1 s).
 Provides remote backup protection.

Advantages

 Fast and selective protection.

 Suitable for medium and long transmission lines.
 Less affected by changes in fault current.
 Provides primary and backup protection.

Disadvantages

 More expensive than overcurrent protection.

 Requires CTs, PTs, and proper relay settings.
 More complex to design and coordinate.

Applications

 Medium and long transmission lines.

 High-voltage (HV) and Extra High Voltage (EHV) transmission systems.

Differential Protection of Transmission Line

Definition

Differential protection is a protection scheme that compares the current entering and
current leaving a transmission line. Under normal conditions, these currents are equal. If a
fault occurs within the protected section, the currents become unequal, causing the relay
to trip the circuit breaker.

Principle of Operation

According to Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL):

Working Principle

1. Current Transformers (CTs) are installed at both ends of the transmission line.
2. The CTs send current measurements to the differential relay.
3. The relay compares the currents.
4. If the difference exceeds the preset value, the relay sends a trip signal to the circuit
breakers at both ends.
5. The faulty line is isolated.

Main Components

 Current Transformers (CTs) (at both ends)

 Differential Relay
 Circuit Breakers (CBs)
 Communication/Pilot Wire or Optical Fiber (to exchange current information)
Advantages

 Very fast operation.

 Highly sensitive and accurate.
 Excellent selectivity (protects only the faulty section).
 Unaffected by load current or external faults.

Disadvantages

 Expensive due to communication links.

 Requires CTs at both ends.
 Not economical for very long transmission lines.
 CT mismatch may cause incorrect operation.

Applications

 Short transmission lines.

 Power transformers.
 Generators.
 Busbars.

Carrier Current (Pilot) Protection of Transmission Line

Definition

Carrier Current (Pilot) Protection is a high-speed protection scheme in which high-

frequency carrier signals are transmitted over the power line to exchange information
between the relays installed at both ends of the transmission line. It helps determine
whether a fault is inside or outside the protected section.
Working Principle

1. Current Transformers (CTs) measure the current at both ends of the transmission line.
2. Relays exchange information through high-frequency carrier signals over the
transmission line.
3. If the fault is within the protected line, both relays detect it and trip the circuit
breakers.
4. If the fault is outside the protected line, the relays block the trip signal, and the
circuit breakers remain closed.

Main Components

 Current Transformer (CT)

 Carrier Current Relay
 Carrier Transmitter and Receiver
 Coupling Capacitor (Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformer - CCVT)
 Wave Trap (Line Trap)
 Circuit Breaker (CB)

Advantages

 Very fast fault detection.

 High reliability and selectivity.
 Suitable for long and Extra High Voltage (EHV) transmission lines.
 Provides simultaneous tripping at both ends of the line.
Disadvantages

 High installation cost.

 Requires communication equipment.
 Complex design and maintenance.
 Not economical for short transmission lines.