Industry

Settlement and Population

Transport and Trade
Map Work

Geography Module C
W

Part 1 and 2 of 4

Compiled by
Thembelani Dube
©2021
Topic 9: Industry
 involves the processes of extraction, production, processing and provision of goods and
services at various levels

Types of Industry
-there are four types:

Primary industry
 extraction and production of raw materials
 raw materials are unprocessed goods such as minerals, crops, fish, wood, meat etc.
 examples of primary activities are farming, mining, fishing, forestry etc.
 products from primary industry are of low value and have to undergo processing to have
a higher value

Secondary industry
 in this industry raw materials produced in the primary industry are converted/processed
into semi-finished and finished foods
 the raw materials from the primary industry are the inputs eg gold from mining is turned
into jewelry; forest wood turned to furniture etc

Tertiary industry
 provides services to both primary and secondary industry
 services provided include banking, education, nursing, tourism, transportation marketing
etc.

Quaternary industry
 is an information generation and sharing based service industry
 examples are Information Communication Technology (ICT), research and development
industries.

Importance of Industries:
 Primary industries
-creates employment
-provides raw materials to other industries
-brings foreign currency when raw materials are exported
-infrastructure development (to access resources and to service workers e.g. roads, clinics,
schools)
-improves people's standards of living (employment, incomes etc.)
-increases the country's Gross Domestic (GDP- the value of goods produced by a country)

 Secondary industries
-creates employment
-value addition (processing raw materials so that they can be sold at a higher value/price)
-brings foreign currency
-infrastructure development
-improves people's standards of living
-low prices of goods manufactured locally

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  Tertiary industry
-services exported and foreign currency generated
-provides knowledge and skills for other sectors
-enables all other sectors to function well

 Quaternary Industry
-enables other industries to function well
-enables primary and secondary industries to access important researched information for
decision making
-ICT knowledge and skills drive economic development

Factors influencing location of Industries

 proximity (closeness) to raw materials e.g. sugarcane processing industry located near
plantations
 power supply e.g. manufacturing Industries depend on power supply and locate where
there is reliable power supply
 transport and communication (make industries accessible)
 labor supply (cheap, unskilled, semi-skilled and labor attracts industries)
 market (ready market i.e. people who buy products attracts industry eg bakery)
 government policies (e.g. tax exemption, ownership policies, financial incentives affect
location of Industries)
 water supplies (most industries locate where there is reliable water)
 cost of land (manufacturing Industries need large land hence locate on cheap land and
away from the CBD)
 capital (the amount of money determines the nature of business).
 political stability (peace and harmony attracts industries)

Challenges faced by manufacturing industry in Zimbabwe

use of outdated machinery
stiff competition from cheap imports
importation of second hand clothing
frequent power cuts
inflation
shortage of foreign currency
sanctions
lack of foreign direct investment into the industry

Footloose industries
-these are industries located at any place or point
-examples include computer repairs, textiles, and food stuffs

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Trans-National Companies (TNCs)
-they are companies that operate in more than one country
-example is BATA shoe company, started in Czechoslovakia in 1894, is a Canadian
owned company which operates in Zimbabwe, Botswana and Mozambique
-other examples of TNC are LONRHO, Uniliver, Nestle and Heinz
-TNCs mostly have their headquarters in economically developed countries e.g.
 Bata...Canada
 Heinz...Germany
 Lonrho... United Kingdom
 Coca-Cola...Brazil

Advantages of Trans-National Companies (TNCs)

-creates employment opportunities
-generates foreign currency through exports
-transfer of new technologies from more economically developed countries to less
economically developed countries
-economic revenue through taxing TNCs
-development of infrastructure like roads, clinics, schools etc. in estates owned by TNCs
-standards of living improved by employment opportunities
-improvement in access to education, health etc.

Disadvantages of Trans-National Companies (TNCs)

-large sums of profits sent back overseas to the mother countries
-destruction/closure of local companies as they can fail to compete with TNCs
-TNCs are exploitative. They underpay cheap unskilled productive labor and top well-
paying positions are reserved for foreigners
-TNCs may get involved in local politics creating political instability
-TNCs can pay less attention to the environmental issues, exploit resources carelessly and
abandon the place
-TNCs promote monopoly e.g. no other company except the Peps Cola Company of US
can manufacture Coca-Cola beverages
-TNCs can stop production whenever they feel like, leading to high unemployment

Export Processing Zones (EPZs)

 are areas in a developing country like Zimbabwe that are selected to attract foreign
investment from developed countries
 the area selected as an EPZ has resources that will attract investment eg cheap labor,
good transport links and natural resources
 governments encourage investment in the EPZs by offering incentives eg lower taxes,
assisting with infrastructure and building permits

Why develop Export Processing Zones (EPZs) in Zimbabwe

 to encourage export led industrial development
 produce goods meant for export market
 increase foreign earnings
 develop local linkages with the domestic economy through the use of local raw materials

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Advantages of EPZs
-job creation for local population
-economic diversification in terms of industrial development, investment and technology
-local skills development
-linkages in related local industries
-international economic linkages through exports
-improved standards of living for locals as they get employed
-development of retail services

Disadvantages of EPZs
-TNCs can move to another country
-most products are exported hence minimal contribution to local market
-profits repatriated (taken back) to country of origin
-low wages paid to local employees
-skilled labor maybe imported at the expense of locals

Industrial inertia
 the tendency for an industry to stay in the same place even if the initial or first advantages
are no longer there
 initial advantages maybe resources like coal or chromite
 the resource may be used up (exhausted) but the area may still undertake industrial
activity of processing by bringing in or transporting raw materials
 the industry may remain in location because the buildings, equipment and other
infrastructure is still there
 or because of favorable transport networks and availability of skilled labor

Agglomeration
is the tendency of industries to locate in the same area
industries maybe attracted to the same area because of advantages the area offers eg raw
materials, technical skills, capital and services

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Topic 10: Settlement and Population
 settlement refers to a single or a collection of dwellings or habitats where people live.
 settlements are classified into rural or urban

Rural Settlements Characteristics

houses and huts usually made up of indigenous materials eg wood, grass, mud
settlement patterns determined by physical features such as hills, rivers etc
major economic activities are primary industry eg farming, fishing, hunting
less amenities eg no tapped water or electricity
sparsely populated
close social ties compared to urban settlements
poor social services
mostly they have more elderly men, women and children
traditional leaders play a significant role in administration

Urban Settlements Characteristics

 these are towns and cities
 major economic activities centered on secondary, tertiary and quaternary industries
 in Zimbabwe some urban areas are centered on primary sector eg mining towns like
Zvishavane and Chiredzi which is based on sugar production
 high population densities
 better services and amenities e.g. tapped water, tarred roads, electricity etc.
 lot of air pollution, water pollution, deforestation etc.
 poor social ties (neighbors may not know or talk to each other)
 role of traditional leaders in administration is limited
 better social services
 settlements are planned
 moderised buildings made up of good quality materials

Classification of Settlements
 settlements can be classified on the basis of size, location and functions

(a) classification by function

 fishing settlement
-major activity is catching fish e.g. Binga

 mining settlement
-major activity involves extraction of minerals from the ground e.g. Whange

 religious settlement
-settlements based on major religious beliefs eg Mecca for Muslims, Jerusalem for
Christians, Vatican for Catholics

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  market settlements
-major activities are in buying and selling e.g. Dubai in United Arab Emirates and
Johannesburg in South Africa
 administration settlements
-major functions are governing the country
-they have parliament buildings etc. e.g. Harare in Zimbabwe, Pretoria in South Africa

 manufacturing settlements
-settlements well known for manufacturing and construction industries eg Manchester in
UK

 resort settlements
-settlements serve as tourist attractions and recreation centers e.g. Victoria Falls

 residential settlements
-places of residence for people working in nearby city e.g. Zimunya in (Mutare), Ruwa
(Harare)

 growth point settlements

-e.g. Nkayi, Tsholotsho, Murambinda

 route centers
-settlements which serves as central points of transport routes e.g. Gweru

 ports settlements
-found at the coast usually containing harbors for ships e.g. Beira (Mozambique), Durban
(South Africa)

(b) Classification by population size

 in Zimbabwe settlements with 2500 people or more are classified as urban.
 those with less than 2500 people as rural

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 Ranking settlements according to their sizes

isolated homesteads
-individual family dwellings for a given family

hamlet
Increase in the size of settlement, population and services

-small group of homesteads with services such as church or post office

village
-collection of homesteads under a given local leader (village head)
-services centers such as schools, clinics, shops etc.

town
-bigger settlement with more services e.g. banks
-has a town council

city
-a large urban settlement having more functions e.g. manufacturing, residential, retailing,

Increase in the number of settlements

marketing etc.
-has a city council

metropolis
-is a large city and its surrounding small towns and small suburbs

conurbation
-a large urban settlement made up of towns and cities expanding and joining to form one
big settlement e.g. Tshwane and Johannesburg (Gauteng)

megapolis
-very large urban settlement formed by joining conurbations e.g. joining of New York,
Philadelphia, Boston, Washington in USA

primate city
-is a city bigger than other cities in a country
-it dominates in terms of economic and political importance
-usually these are capital cities e.g. Harare, Lusaka etc.
© T. Dube 2021

 site of settlement- is the actual ground where the settlement is built eg built on flat land,
hillsides, plains etc

 situation of settlement- is the position of settlement in relation to surroundings e.g. built

near hills, near major roads etc.

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Factors Affecting Site and Situation of Settlements
 relief
 the nature of soil
 nearness to resources
 availability of building materials
 defense
 climate
 pests and diseases

Importance of situation in settlements

-it determines the settlement's potential for growth
-it determines accessibility
-it determines the settlement's ability to attract trade

Rural Settlement Patterns

 nucleated/clustered pattern
-settlements found around a given point
-many buildings in one area

 dispersed settlement pattern

-individual homesteads well-spaced from each other

 radial settlement patterns

-buildings spread outwards from the central point likes the spokes of a bicycle

 linear settlement pattern

-buildings or homesteads located along main transport routes eg rivers, railway lines,
roads etc.

 circular settlement pattern

-buildings are built around a central place
-central place might have a water well etc

 T-Shaped settlement pattern

-settlements developing at a T-junction where transport routes meet

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Land Use Legislation
 are laws governing land use in rural and urban areas of Zimbabwe

Urban Councils Act

 governs the administration of cooties and towns
 it empowers urban councils to manage the use of land in towns and cities
 it allows urban councils to develop the land and come up with urban land use zones
 the urban councils act governs cities, municipalities, towns and local boards
 the urban councils act is set through parliament

Rural District Councils Act

 regulates the management of rural areas
 each rural district council has a rural district chairperson
 rural district councils manage growth points and other rural settlements
 rural district councils plan land uses in rural areas
 RDCs offer commercial and residential stands in growth points and shopping centers
 the RDC Act specifies the role of rural district councils in managing natural resources e.g.
water, fish, forests and general environment
 the Act empowers the local authorities to make policies towards managing the
environment

Council By-Laws
 a by-law is a regulation made by a local authority
 by laws apply only within an area under the jurisdiction/authority of the council
 examples of by-laws are building by-laws, fire by-laws etc.

The Provincial Council and Administration Act

 the Act is a realignment of the laws with chapter 14 of the construction of Zimbabwe
 the councils will manage all local authorities within a given province
 the provincial councils will be the engine the development of the provinces of Zimbabwe

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Urbanization
the increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas
is the shift in population from rural to urban areas
it is the process whereby a growing percentage of the population lives in cities and large
towns
although this can be caused by natural increase (higher birth rates in urban areas than
rural areas), it is more likely to happen because of rural-urban migration

Causes of Urbanization
 Push factors
-high unemployment in rural areas
-poor education facilities in rural areas
-harsh climates
-overcrowding
-high crime rates
-natural disasters e.g. floods, cyclones, droughts
-hunger/famine
-farmers mechanization (human labor replaced)
-war and political instability

 Pull factors
-employment opportunities in urban areas
-better educational and health facilities in town
-good climate
-better living conditions
-political stability and peace

Effects of urbanization
 high unemployment and under employment.
 shortage of accommodation/residential housing
 rapid spread of diseases
 high crime and robbery
 rise of shanty settlements/squatter settlements.
 increase in cost of living
 shortage of food
 pressure on water resources
 loss of cultural values
 pressure on social services
 transport congestion
 pollution of water air and land increases
 urban sprawl
 limited space of expansion

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Solutions to Urbanization
 provide a better public system so that fewer people use private cars
 traffic lights or traffic circles to prevent a buildup of traffic
 provide one way routes
 build low incoming housing e.g. Hlalani Kuhle project
 maintenance of water, sewer and power infrastructure
 organized and planned growth of towns and cities
 stricter regulations against pollution
 support small enterprises and informal sector
 establishment of growth points in rural areas to create employment and reduce rural-
urban migration
 developing rural areas to reduce migration.
 decentralization of industries to rural areas.
 reduction of birth rate in both rural and urban areas.
 increased investment in rural and urban areas.
 skills training to have more entrepreneurs

Benefits of urbanisation
human labor readily available
enlarged market for goods and services.
growth of industries

Traffic Congestion in Urban Areas:

 Causes
 increase in car ownership
 limited amount of public transport or expensive public transport or overcrowded
public transport
 roads not designed for many cars
 population growth and rural-urban migration
 the movement of freight (containers) onto lorries

 Problems Caused by Congestion

o increased amount of pollutants released by cars, which can lead increased chest
problems e.g. asthma.
o people travelling to work have to leave home earlier and arrive back later,
therefore spending longer away from their families.
o more cars on the roads increases the frequency of accidents
o more vehicles on the roads increase noise pollution.
o late deliveries caused by traffic jams costs companies and the economy money.
o workers also arrive late to work

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Solutions to Traffic Congestion
 pedestrianisation.
 traffic lights / robots
 round abouts
 fly overs
 improve rail links in town
 re-urbanisation: this means the movement of people back in the center of urban areas
(near the CBD) by encouraging people back into the center then commuter times and
traffic jams should decrease.
 increased car tax and petrol duty.
 park and ride during rush hours (mornings and evenings)

The Structure of Urban Settlements

this is the shape or form of urban areas in relation to land-use models or urban
morphology.
models are used to describe and explain the structure of cities.
model is a systematic description of an object in this case a typical city.
there are three urban land use models:
•Concentric model (1924) by Burgess,
•Sector Model (1939) by Hoyt
•Multi-nuclei Model (1945) by Harris and Ullman.
these models attempt to describe what a typical town/city or urban settlement looks like,
how it came to be what it is (how it developed over the years) and why

 it was formulated by Burgess and Park in 1924

 the city could be divided into a number of concentric land-use zones as per the diagram

 the model assumes that the city grows from a single nucleus (core) in concentric circles
of distinct land uses.
 the city grows by urban expansion due to demand of different goods and services.
 the city will continue to grow into surrounding rural areas.

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 The CBD
 is the nucleus of the city
 all (communication) routes meet in this area.
 it has high rise buildings/skyscrapers.
 rentals are normally high in this area.
 it has very few people and traffic during the night and high traffic densities of people and
traffic during the day.
 it is the commercial core where hotels, banks, specialized services, theatres, departmental
stores, finance houses and cinemas are found

Zone of transition
 it surrounds the CBD.
 it has residential areas with poor housing.
 it has offices and light industries.
 it is characterised by industrial functions that require a lot of land.
 it is famous for its crimes and social problems for example prostitution.
 it is characterised by transient population, migrant workers, the poor, aged and
unemployment for example Mbare and Avenues.

Low class residential areas/Zone of workingmen’s houses

 is the zone of workingmen’s houses or low-income residential zone
 is found near heavy industries for example Makhokhoba, Sizinda, Highfield and Glen
Norah suburbs near Belmont industries, Willowvale industries and Mbare and
Graniteside Industries.
 the density of houses per unit area is high
 the zone is characterized by high density suburbs with each house located on a small plot
of land.
 this area is occupied by factory works, single houses, small yards and untarred roads

Medium density housing/Zone of middle income

 this is characterized by large houses, with gardens and broad tree-lined streets.
 a small commercial centre and greenbelts can be found within this zone.
 social centres like pre-schools and schools can also be found in this zone

Commuter zone
 is located some distance away from the city centre.
 people commute to the CBD in order to get to work using trains, cars and buses.
 the zone starts off with low density, high income residential areas, with large spaced
houses and gardens.
 in some places market gardening may be practiced
 they usually have a suburban shopping centre
 the zone may also give way to larger farms supplying fresh fruits, dairy products and
vegetables to the town

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 it was published as an alternative to Burgess and Park’s concentric model.
 it was based on a study of 142 American cities.
 the model assumes wealthy people who can afford the highest rentals and rates chose the
best sites
 wealthy residents can afford private cars or transportation thus they live further from
industry and near main roads.
 similar land uses attract each other and repel other land uses.
 his process is referred to as sector development
 the city or town as a single CBD or core.
 people need to move from one area of the town to another
 according to Hoyt areas alongside main roads/communication lines attract the highest
rent and rates.
 the city grows in a series of wedges.
 land use follows transport routes from the CBD.
 once a certain area has developed a distinctive land use or function it tends to retain that
land use as the city grows outwards
 Hoyt also identifies different residential zones in relation to income, opportunity and
class.
 sectors thus replace the rings in Burgess and Park’s model.
 this is because of unequal access as the city grows outwards along major routes.
 major routes attract manufacturing.
 next to the industrial zone are low class worker’s houses
 these houses are followed by middle class houses

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  modern cities have a more complex structure than described by the Concentric and Sector
models
 cities usually grow from several independent nuclei rather than or in addition to the main

The CBD
 these cores include suburban shopping centres in most modern cities.
 each of these nucleus acts as a point of growth
 and usually has some of the functions found in the main CBD and other nuclei
 example it might have banks, shopping malls, supermarkets etc for example Nkulumane,
Entumbane, Ascot and Sonk' Izizwe shopping centres in Bulawayo
 these centres grow with time to merge with each other to form one large urban centre.
 multiple nuclei thus develop out of the need for quick access to the centre, to keep certain
land uses apart and to decentralise.
 the city of Bulawayo closely approximates this model with the main large CBD at the
centre and various nuclei in the form of shopping centres or complexes

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Urban Housing
Council Housing
-this is government housing which is usually given to people that are unemployed and
have a low income
-the rent on council houses are lower than the rent on private property e.g. Mabuthweni

Detached Housing
-a single house that is not attached to any other house
-a detached house will normally have a garden and a drive in
-these types of houses are normally found in the suburbs like Phumula South, Nkulumane,
and Burnside etc

Semi-Detached Housing
-two houses that are joined together
-they will probably have individual gardens and drive in
-these types of houses are normally found in the suburbs like Phumula East, Magwegwe
North etc

Terraced Housing
-a long line of attached houses
-called imidadada in Zimbabwe
-examples are in Phumula East, Pumula North, Emabuthweni etc

Bungalow
-this is a house with only one floor
-they are very popular amongst old people who find it hard to use stairs -bungalows can
be detached or semi-detached.-they are normally found in the suburbs

Flats or Apartments
-these are buildings with multiple levels. -normally a flat or apartment will only be on
one floor within the block of flats or the apartment building

Residential Zones
 areas in which accommodation facilities are found in urban areas:
High density suburbs
 areas for low income earners
 mostly found on the western side on CBDs
 majority of people living there employed in heavy industries
 low quality houses
 low land values
 yards are 150m² to 350m² eg Phumula, Nketha etc in Bulawayo

Medium density suburbs

 for the middle class urban people
 houses are relatively bigger eg Mahatshula etc in Bulawayo

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Low Density suburbs
 residential area where wealthy people live
 vast/large yards
 high land values
 high quality houses
 spacious houses
 examples are Selbourne park, Burnside, Mqabuko Heights etc

Shanty/Squatter/Unplanned Settlements
 these are unplanned illegal settlements located on the periphery of high density
residential areas without services like piped water, toilets, electricity, roads etc

Characteristics of shanties
towns are unplanned ,homes are built in a disorderly fashion
poor housing made of plastics ,wood, card boxes, metals and iron rods
most of the residents are informally employed, so there are poor living standards
poor levels of hygiene and health, poor sanitation usually one communal tap a shower
and block of toilet
because of shortage of water they use unprotected water sources
overcrowded leading to outbreak of diseases e.g. tuberculosis
problems of crime ,theft and illegal acts
social problems like prostitution is more
more environmental pollution as litter is dumped everywhere

Causes of unplanned/shanty/squatter settlements

 rural-urban migration
 new migrants in search of work
 shortage of low cost affordable housing in cities and towns
 high unemployment

Problems caused by the growth of shanty settlements

 overcrowding
 crime e.g. increased drug abuse, theft
 anti-social behaviour e.g. prostitution
 quick spread of diseases
 poor sanitation
 shortage of water etc.
 pollution of water bodies, land, air, visual etc.

Possible solutions to the problems of shanty settlement

o increase police patrol
o construct cheap houses
o educate people on the problems of pollution
o built schools
o provide loan facilities
o introduction of housing co-operatives

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 o provide clean water facilities and sanitation
o improve waste disposal methods
o introduce new settlements
o local authorities and partners to upgrade squatter settlements
o give squatters title deeds to own the land they illegally possessed
o establish and develop growth points to curb rural-urban migration

Disaster resilient infrastructure

 resilience refers to a system`s ability to anticipate, absorb and recover from a hazardous
event in a timely and efficient manner.
 infrastructure such as building, roads, should withstand hazards
 failure will lead to a crisis hence there is need to develop disaster resilient infrastructure
as mitigation against natural and technological disasters

Features of disaster resilient infrastructure

 ability to withstand the impacts of hazards events like effects of earthquakes, strong
winds, and wildfires
 availability of alternative housing for disaster victims such as safe shelter during flooding.
 ability of the authority`s business and industry to improve when disasters strike
 the time taken to restore lifeline services, (time between impact and early recovery)

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Topic 11: Transport and Trade
 transport is the movement of people and goods from one place to another
 there are different modes (types) of transport
 the choice of mode of transport depends on:
✓the cost of transport
✓the speed of the transport
✓the distance travelled
✓the nature of goods carried
✓the availability of the mode of transport
✓time taken by the mode of transport

Modes of transport
a. Road transport
 most commonly used mode of transport in Zimbabwe
 examples are cars, lorries, buses, scooters, push carts

Advantages of road transport

 provides door to door services
 cheap over short distances
 it is flexible
 can be used on different types of roads
 can carry bulky cargo
 less affected by weather
 can be used even in remote areas
 faster over short distances

Disadvantages of road transport

 prone to traffic jams or congestion
 expensive over long distances
 causes air pollution
 cost of fuel high in some countries
 expensive to maintain vehicles
 more road accidents and deaths
 prone to armed robbers
 roads expensive to maintain
 cannot transport many people at once

Developments in road transport

 dual/double carriage ways
 tollgates
 traffic lights
 round about
 tarred roads

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  faster and luxurious vehicles
 refrigeration and containerization
 less fuel consuming engines
 GPS fitted in vehicles for easy navigation
 spaghetti roads

Causes of roads accidents

 reckless driving
 unlicensed drivers
 excessive speeding
 animals crossing roads
 poorly maintained roads
 vandalism of road signs
 use of unroad worthy or unfit vehicles
 -very narrow roads

Efforts to reduce road accidents

 roads safety education
 setting of police checkpoints and roadblocks
 dualisation of roads
 intensive training of drivers
 arresting corrupt VID officials
 regular inspection of vehicles at VID
 regular road maintenance
 putting road signs
 putting fence along high ways
 appeasing spirits on dark sports through prayers and traditional rituals

b. Rail transport
use of trains and subways to carry people and goods

Advantages of rail transport

 carry bulky goods
 modern trains more luxurious and comfortable
 bullet trains are faster
 cheap over long distances
 less accidents recorded
 large numbers of people transported

Disadvantages of rail transport

 not flexible or cannot be easily diverted from its route
 cannot stop where there are no termini
 does not provide door to door service
 high costs of constructing and maintaining rail lines
 rail lines and trains prone to sabotage

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  not available in some remote areas
 few accidents that occur can lead to the death of many people and loss of large quantities
of goods
 generally slow

Developments in rail transport

 coal steam engines
 replaced by diesel engines
 replaced by electricity powered engines
 luxurious, fast bullet trains replaced the old coaches

c. Pipeline transport
 involves the transportation of fluids and gas through pipes or tubes

Advantages of pipeline transport

 low costs of transporting fluids
 less or no risks of accidents
 pipelines last long
 large volumes transported
 underground pipes secure in terms of theft

Disadvantages of pipeline transport

 not flexible mode of transport
 pipelines can be sabotaged
 carry fluids and gas only not solids and people
 pipelines laying very expensive
 pipelines leakages dangerous to people and the environment
 leakages of fuel can result in death of people during explosions

d. Air transport
 flying from one point to another
 capable of oceans and seas
 includes airplanes, jets, helicopters etc.

Advantages of air transport

 security during transportation of high valued goods
 it is fast
 direct flight routes reducing delays
 carry people and goods away from hazardous environments
 suitable in transporting perishables

Disadvantages of air transport

 quantities and weights of goods carried is limited
 accidents if they occur are fatal

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  expensive
 affected by bad weather
 causes air and noise pollution
 airports located far away from the cities or places of residence eg Joshua Mqabuko
Nkomo international airport and Robert Gabriel Mugabe international airport more than
10km from the City

Developments in air transport

 faster, luxurious and big airplanes
 scanning and x-rays security checks at airports
 use of radar to monitor planes

e. Water transport
 use of oceans and inland water routes eg canals, lakes and rivers

Advantages of water transport

 cheap over long distances
 no routes constructed
 can carry bulky goods
 ships can be designed to carry specific cargo
 use of containers ensures safety of goods

Disadvantages of water transport

 no door to door delivery
 takes a long time to cover long distances
 need for special facilities at ports e.g. loading machines

Developments in water transport

 ships now comfortable
 engines faster and efficient
 radar used to locate ships and improve safety

Break-of-Bulk points
 goods repacked into smaller quantities so that they are delivered to the final destination in
smaller quantities

Consolidation-of-Goods point
 goods are packed together to become bulky so that they are loaded for transportation

Containerisation
 packing goods into large metal boxes called containers that fit the type of transport

Roll-on Roll-off (Ro Ro)

 all goods treated as cargo

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 *damage and theft of goods reduced
*reduces transport costs
*reduces loading and offloading costs
*Ro-Ro system is expensive as it requires specialised equipment

Transport Problems
 are challenges faced in the transportation of goods and people using various modes of
transport

Major transport problems include:

 traffic shortages
 traffic congestion
 exorbitant or high fares
 accidents
 fuel shortages
 shortage of spare parts
 poor transport infrastructure
 economic instability

Problems faced by commuters

 shortage of transport
 high transport fares
 too much delays at police roadblocks
 delays due to congestion

Solutions to problems faced by commuters

 more public vehicles
 commuter trains
 roads dualisation to reduce traffic congestion
 creating fly overs to reduce traffic congestion
 maintaining and resurfacing roads to increase speeds of vehicles

Transport Networks
a transport network is a set of routes (lines) connecting places and junctions
the routes or lines maybe roads, paths, railways, air routes, pipes, wires
it can be anything along which people, goods and services could travel

Common network patterns

a. Linear
 simplest transport network
 connects places along the same route from point A to point B

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b. Tree network
 the routes converge at one place

c. An open circuit or route

 the tree points can be connected
 last point can't connect with the first
 one has to go back along the route used to get to the starting point

d. Closed circuit or route

 can go around
 the last point can connect with first point

e. The Star network

 routes radiate from a centre point outward
 the centre point is the centre of all routes
 to reach different destinations, pass through the centre

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Routes/Links/Edges
 connects different places
 if routes/links/edges meet or converge at given points, it means that area is well
connected transport wise

Nodes/Vertices
 where routes meet or connect
 different nodes and links or routes are shown using topological diagrams

Beta Index
 it shows if an area is well connected by transport or not
 a high Beta Index shows a well-connected area
 low Beta Index shows a poorly connected area
 if the Beta Index is 1 or below 1, then there is low level of connectivity. A high Beta
Index shows greater level of connectivity

Calculating Beta Index formula=

Number of routes/links/edges
Number of nodes/vertices

Calculate the following:

1. Number of edges 20 & number of vertices 16
2. Number of routes is 8 & nodes are 16

Do your working here

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Trade
is the buying and selling of goods and services locally and internationally
trade involves exchange of goods and services for money
barter trade was used before invention of money to exchange goods and services
trade occurs in a form of chain: manufacturer>wholesaler>retailer>consumer

Domestic trade
 buying and selling of goods within the same country
 domestic trade occurs within the same political boundaries
 it involves the use of the same local currency (in Zimbabwe we use multiple currency for
now)
 transport costs are relatively lower
 domestic trade has less risk of incurring loses

Foreign trade
 is the exchange of goods and services beyond political boundaries e.g. trade between
Zimbabwe and China
 it is the trade between countries
 trade between two countries is bilateral trade; amongst more than two countries is called
multilateral trade
 foreign trade can be between or amongst countries of the same region, continent or
beyond
 foreign currencies are used
 higher transport costs
 foreign trade usually occurs in trading blocs e.g. SADC, COMESA
 high and stiff levels of control
 higher risk level since dealing with foreign clients

Trade patterns of SADC

 Southern African Development Community (SADC) member states are Angola,
Botswana, DRC, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South
Africa, Eswatini, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe
 objectives of SADC is to work towards social, economic and political cooperation and
peace among member states
 SADC Free Trade Area (SAFTA) is a trade block where trade tariffs, import duties and
quotas (barriers) have been eliminated so that members can trade freely with one another

Trade patterns of Zimbabwe

Major Exports are:
•gold
•platinum
•ferroalloys
•cotton
•textiles and clothing
•tobacco

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Zimbabwe major export partners are:
 South Africa
 China
 Botswana
 DRC
 Japan
 Zambia
 USA
 Zambia

Major Imports are:

•food
•fuels
•industrial supplies
•machinery
•transportation

Zimbabwe major import partners are:

 South Africa
 China
 United Kingdom
 Germany
 Japan
 United States of America
 Malawi
 Italy
 Netherlands
 Mozambique

Balance of trade
 balance between exports and imports

Favourable/positive balance of trade

 more exports than imports
 to achieve positive balance of trade the country must:
o have more manufacturing Industries
o export finished goods
o increase amount of exports

Negative balance of trade

 more imports than exports

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Advantages of trade
 people are able to buy goods they need
 brings goods into the country needed by people and industry
 employment creation
 export of goods grows the economy

Home work

1. What are the characteristics of

a. Retail trade
b. Wholesale trade
c. Informal trade
d. Chain stores

2.
a. What is Cross border trading
b. What are the advantages and disadvantages of cross border trading

3. What can be done to help informal traders in Zimbabwe

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Topic 12: Map Work
A map
 is a scaled representation of the earth’s surface on a flat material, for example a piece of
paper, wall, clothes and a piece of wood
 map reading is the process of examining the given map, conventional symbols and signs
 map interpretation is the process of examining a given map of an area represented for the
purpose of identifying the geographical information of an area.

Types of maps
 classification of maps is based on the purpose for which each map is drawn. -maps can be
categorized into three types as follows:
Sketch map
Atlas map/ wall maps
Topographical maps

Sketch maps
 a map drawn from observation (rather than from exact measurements) and representing
the main features of an area

Atlas map/wall map

 a collection of different maps that have been bound together in one volume to form a
book. -these maps are usually drawn to scales eg shows town and cities, hills, mountains,
valleys, forests, countries, etc

Topographical maps
 shows selected physical and human features in an area and their positions on the ground
eg hills, village, mountains, lakes, ponds, rivers

Characteristics/Components/Essentials of a good map

 a map is good if it contains all the essentials of maps
 the essentials are good qualities of maps
 the essentials of a good map are:

Key
 used to interpret symbols and signs found on a map
 they appear in a box at one of the corner of the map

Title
 used to show what the map is all about
 this is the heading of the map
 it can appear on top of the map or anywhere else

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North direction
 this is an indication of the north direction
 it shows where north is and by knowing north one can know the direction and bearing of
the place

Margin
 this is a boundary or limit around the map
 it gives or shows the reader and interpreter the end of the map

Publisher and date publication

 this shows when the map was produced and a publisher

Latitude and longitude / grid reference

 it is used to locate the place on the map

Scale
 it shows the relationship between map distance and the actual ground distance eg 1cm to
50000cm means one centimeter on the map represents 50000cm on the ground
 is the relationship or ratio between map distance and actual ground distance

Types of scale
there are three types of scales:

Large Scale
 are used to present information on small areas for example a map of village buildings and
farms
 the map size involves all numbers less than 1:25000 ie 1:10000 and 1:5000

characteristics of large scale

 it has smaller numbers in the denominator
 it shows features clearly
 it contains geographical details

Medium scale
 are used to represent medium details shown on the map. i.e. 1:50,000 and 1:100,000
 a map that can be drawn using medium scale is a map of a district, region, city etc.

Small scale
 are used to present information that is long
 this type of scale covers a big area with less detail e.g. a map of a country, continent or
world
 may involve numbers between 1 : 500,000 to 1 : 1000,000

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characteristics of small scale.
 it has the largest denominator.
 contains a lot of geographical information.
 it does not show geographical features clearly

Ways used to express map scale:

statement scale
 refers to the scale which is expressed in terms of words or explanation. eg example one
centimeter on a map is equivalent to 50000 centimeters on the ground

linear scale
 -is also called plain or graphic scale
 -is a line which is divided into two parts
 -the primary division and secondary division
 -the secondary are expressed in meters and placed on the left side from zero and
primaries are expressed in kilometers and placed on the right side from zero

representative fraction (RF) scale

 is written as a fraction or ratio e.g. 1:50000
 RF scale is map distance over ground distance

Importance of scale on map

 to calculate area of a map
 enables us to calculate distance on a map
 it shows the relationship between map distance and the actual ground distance
 scale help us to enlarge and reduce the area on a map or the whole map
 scale can be used to calculate the vertical exaggeration on a map
 scale is used to calculate the gradient on a map

Measuring distance on a map

distance is the length of elongated features on the earth’s surface such as road, railway,
river etc.
in order to obtain distance of any feature on the map, consideration should be made on
whether the distance to be measured is straight or curve
for all straight distances a ruler is used to obtain the distance directly from the
topographical map given
for curved distances following devices can be used:

T. Dube 31
***pair of divider
 -pair of divider is commonly used to measure the distance
 -start by breaking the length by using a pair of dividers then transfer some of the already
drawn straight lines
 -then transfer the measured line to the linear scale or ruler for calculation to get the actual
distance.

***piece of a string
 slowly measure the distances by a piece of string along a given length then transfer it to a
linear scale or ruler for actual calculation of the distance.

****piece of strip paper

 slowly lay a piece of paper along a given length then break your lengths into short
segments then transfer to the linear scale for measuring and calculation

Measuring area on a map

 -area size refers to the bigness or smallness of an area on the earth’s surface i.e. the
bigness or smallness of earth’s surface from topographical map consideration should be
made whether the area is regular or not

Regular shapes
 -are areas with definite shapes such as squares, triangles etc.
 -their total perimeters or areas are obtained by mathematical formula i.e. length x width,
side x side etc.

T. Dube 32
Irregular shaped
these are areas with indefinite shapes such as lakes, farms, ponds etc -where these areas
can be obtained by any of the following three methods:
✓square method
✓strip method
✓geometrical method

Square method
this is the most accurate and most widely method used
square methods are normally used as follows:
•count all full squares that are complete
•count incomplete squares and divide them by 2
•add them with the full squares to obtain the total area in km2

Methods used to show or locate positions of a place on a map

the following are major methods used to show positions of a place on a map:
 grid reference
 place name
 bearing and compass direction
 latitude and longitude
 place name
 can locate the position of a place by where the features are found i.e. Bulawayo, Matobo,
Tsholotsho etc

Grid reference
 grid reference is a network of vertical lines and horizontal lines on a map
 vertical lines whose numbers increases towards the east are called eastings -horizontal
lines whose numbers increase towards the north is known as northings -where horizontal
lines and vertical lines meet or cross each other they form a square known as grid square
 a grid reference point is written inform of four, six and thirteen digits starting with digits
of eastings then three digits of nothings e.g. 2618; 264189; 0642660010890

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  Analyse the grid reference readings below

Location and position: Compass bearing

 identify the grid reference points given on the maps
 draw a straight line connecting the two points -draw the major four cardinal lines at the
starting
 now look at the question asked
 use a protector to measure degree clockwise from north up to the line joining the two
points -provide your answer in degrees

T. Dube 34
Bearing
 in bearing there is:
✓forward bearing
✓backward bearing

Forward bearing
 is a bearing into a subject -procedures to calculate forward bearing
•dentify the two points.
•join them with a straight line
•draw the north direction on a second point e.g. calculate the bearing of Mcetshwa from
Dikili. Mcetshwa is the first point and Dikili the second point. The second point is the
one coming after the word from
•measure the angle by using a protector
•state the bearing in terms of degrees of the direction

T. Dube 35
Backward bearing
 is the opposite of forward bearing, it’s taken from the object to the observer while
forward bearing is taken from observer to the object

How to determine the back bearing

 find forward bearing.
 mark the cardinal point north direction of the opposite point
 find the bearing of the observer along the straight line principally to determine the back
bearing

Importance of maps
 people use them to reach their directions
 maps are used to describe the features of the earth
 builders use maps to plan the best use of the land
 road constructors use maps to construct new roads
 maps are useful in military activities
 maps are used in conducting various geographical researches

Contour lines and their interpretation

 contour are lines that can connect points of equal elevation or height
 are numbered in metres (m)
 1: 50 000 maps have a contour interval of 20m and 1: 250 000 maps have an interval of
300m
 contour lines never cross each other (they correspond to specific elevation, divide or spilt
 contour lines always form closed loops
 are shown in brown on a map and can tell us about the slope of the land

Types of Contour lines

Index contour
 are the thickest lines usually labeled with a number at one point along the line
 this tells us the elevation above sea level, accent with a heavier mark and easily seen
 they form in concentric circles or shapes.
 have typical interval of 100 to 200 feet

T. Dube 36
 Intermediate lines
 are thinner and more common lines between the indexes.
 they are not labeled with a number
 one index occur for every five intermediate lines
 four lines create five spaces and to make the change equal, the gap between each line
would have to represent 20m of elevation change

Supplementary lines
 they appear as dotted lines, indicating flatter terrain
 they are drawn at all one elevation but represent different elevation
 they are between the Index and Intermediate lines.
 they are used on topographic maps where the overall change in elevation is very gradual
or slight

Landform identification using contour lines/patterns

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Slopes
 a slope is the gradient of land surface.

Gentle Slope
 is one in which land doesn’t rise or fall steeply
 contours are wide apart

Steep Slope
 is where land rises or falls sharply.
 contours are close to each other

T. Dube 38
Convex Slopes
 one curved outwards
 indicated by contours which are close together at the bottom and widely spaced together
at the top

Concave Slopes
 one curved inwards
 contours are close together at the top and widely spaced at the bottom

A Valley
 is a low area between higher grounds
 indicated by U-shaped contours pointing towards a higher ground

T. Dube 39
A Spur
 is land which is projected from high to low ground
 it is indicated by U-shaped contours bulging towards lower ground

Interlocking Spurs
 are spurs which appear as if to fit together

T. Dube 40
Truncated Spurs
 are spurs in glaciated highlands whose tips have been eroded and straightened

Conical hill
 hills are uplands which rise above relatively lower ground
 conical hills are small rounded hills

Irregular Shaped hill

 is a hill with some sides with uneven gentle and others with uneven steep slopes

T. Dube 41
Ridge
 a range of hills with steep slopes on all sides
 a ridge can contain hills, cols, passes or water shed

A Col
 is a low area which occurs between two hills

A Pass
 is a narrow steep sided gap in a highland

A Water Shed
 is the boundary separating drainage systems which drains into different directions
 escarpment and ridges often form water sheds

T. Dube 42
Escarpment
 is a relatively continuous line of steep slopes facing the same direction
 has two slopes: a long gentle slope (dip slope) and short steep slope (scarp slope)

A Plateau
 is a high flat land bound by steep slopes

T. Dube 43
Gradient
 this is the steepness of a slope, and is represented as a ratio e.g. 1 : 50, 1 : 500 or fraction
as 1/15
 the smaller the number, the steeper the slope
 Gradient = VI (Vertical Height)/
 HE (Horizontal Equivalent)
 VI = Highest height - Lowest height - always in metres (difference in height between two
points)
 HE = Measure the distance between the 2 points in cms, and convert to metres (distance
between two contours expressed as horizontal measurement)
 divide the top answer by itself, divide the bottom answer by the top
 the answer is a ratio i.e. no units must be given

 X distance on the ground is Vertical interval

 Y distance on map (horizontal equivalent)

Example 1:
 Calculate the average gradient from Trig Beacon 96 to Spot Height 447
**Highest point = 544.3m (Height of Trig. Beacon).
**Minus 447m (Spot Height).
*Difference in height = 97,3m.
*Distance = 2,6cm

Question: Use the scale 1:50000 to find the gradient

T. Dube 44
Land use Patterns
 land refers to an area of the earth`s surface which includes the biosphere above and below
the earth`s surface
 land use concerns the functions or purpose for which the land is being used by the
population to meet all their needs.
 humans have changed the land in various ways for example forests have been cleared to
agricultural and grazing land etc.

Notes Question: Identify some ways the land has been altered by humans [10]
Types of land use
 residential land use – land used as places where people live
 commercial land use – buildings used for selling goods e.g. shops and banks
 Central Business District (CBD) -
 industrial land use- buildings used for manufacturing of goods
 transport land use-land used for road and rail construction
 agricultural – land used for growing of crops or raising of animals for a purpose
 recreational land use -
 institutional land use – land for schools, colleges and universities
 forestry – areas for plantations of trees
 mining -extraction of minerals

Factors influencing land use patterns:

 Soils
 Relief
 Capital
 Markets
 Population size
 Technology
 Land tenure
 Government policies

Land use patterns on a map

 land use can be identified using symbols, key, colour and contour lines.
 you the learners should explain why certain land uses are where they are in relation to
landforms such as mountains, valleys and rivers i.e. settlements can be nucleated around
a wet point, cultivation
 can be done on mountainous regions or steep slopes and roads pass through passes

Types of land use patterns

 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can be used to show land use patterns.
 most land use shown are represented using
✓Vector data such as points, lines and polygons

T. Dube 45
Polygon
 polygon form boundaries of areas
 land masses, islands, water features and frequency forest are shown using polygons -
different colours and patterns can be used to show the difference between polygon
features

Point data
 points represents true points on a map for example towns and cities though they have an
area

Line data
 linear features such as roads, rivers, railway lines and power lines are represented using
line data
 in Geographical Information Systems (GIS), line is called arc`line and has coordinates or
points along it

Processes influencing land use patterns on maps

 Irrigation is usually located near water sources such as dams and rivers example Save-
Limpopo region has vast land under irrigation with Triangle, Hippo Valley and
Mkwasine estates
 Dairy farming is usually close to towns and cities due to the nature of product
 Highlands are suitable for tea, coffee and trees
 Mining is done in ragged terrain due to various methods of mining used
 Minerals occur everywhere on the earth surface depending on soil type and geological
formations.
 The dry regions of Zimbabwe has been reserved for cattle ranching and wildlife due to
low agricultural potential

T. Dube 46