Module 3

Superconductivity
Introduction to Superconductivity
Superconductivity is a remarkable quantum phenomenon observed in certain
materials when cooled below a characteristic temperature known as the
critical temperature (Tc​). In this state, the electrical resistivity of the material
abruptly drops to zero, allowing an electric current to flow indefinitely without
any energy dissipation. In addition to zero resistance, superconductors exhibit
the Meissner effect, which is the complete expulsion of magnetic flux from
their interior, distinguishing them from perfect conductors. These properties
arise not from classical physics but from the collective quantum behavior of
electrons, which form bound pairs known as Cooper pairs. The theoretical
foundation of superconductivity was laid by the Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer
(BCS) theory in 1957, which explained how lattice vibrations (phonons) mediate
an effective attraction between electrons, leading to the condensation of pairs
into a coherent quantum state. The superconducting state is further
characterized by critical parameters—critical temperature (Tc​), critical
magnetic field (Hc​), and critical current (Ic​)—beyond which superconductivity is
destroyed. Over the decades, the discovery of conventional metallic
superconductors, high-Tc ​ cuprates, and iron-based superconductors has not
only deepened our understanding of quantum matter but also opened
pathways for technological applications such as MRI machines,
superconducting magnets, particle accelerators, SQUIDs (Superconducting
Quantum Interference Devices), and quantum computing. Thus,
superconductivity remains both a subject of
fundamental research and a foundation for
transformative technologies.
In 1911, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
discovered superconductivity while measuring
the resistance of mercury cooled with liquid
helium. Instead of gradually approaching zero,
the resistance of mercury abruptly dropped to
exactly zero at a critical temperature of about
4.2 K, showing that the metal could conduct
current without any energy loss. This landmark
experiment not only revealed a new state of
matter—superconductivity—but also introduced
Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor (Physics), JSSATE, Bangalore 560 060 1
the concept of a critical temperature, earning Onnes the 1913 Nobel Prize in
Physics.
1.​ Zero resistance state: The defining feature of superconductivity is the
complete disappearance of electrical resistance below a certain critical
temperature. When a material becomes superconducting, the resistivity drops
abruptly to zero, leading to infinite conductivity:
1
σ= ρ
→∞

Ohm’s law in the superconducting state reduces to:

V=IR=0
for any finite current I, implying no energy dissipation. Microscopically, this
arises from the formation of Cooper pairs, which condense into a ground state
immune to scattering.
Persistent current: In a superconducting material, current will
2.​
continue to flow in a closed loop as long as the loop is held below the critical
temperature Tc. Such a steady current which flows with undiminished
strength is called a persistent current. The concept of persistent current is a
direct consequence of both
zero electrical resistance and
the ability of superconductors
to sustain screening currents.
Consider a ring of
superconducting material
placed in the magnetic field.
For temperature greater than
the critical temperature, T>T c, the magnetic flux will pass through the body of
the loop as depicted in Fig. When the temperature of the loop is decreased
below the critical temperature, T<T c, magnetic flux is expelled from the body
of the loop. Because resistance vanishes, an electric current once established
in a superconducting loop continues indefinitely. If a magnetic flux Φ is
trapped in a superconducting ring, the induced current Ip​ satisfies the flux
quantization condition:
ℎ
ϕ = 𝑛ϕ0 = 𝑛 2𝑒

where ϕ0​ is the flux quantum and n is an integer. This ensures stability of
the circulating supercurrent and is the basis for SQUIDs (superconducting
quantum interference devices).
Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor (Physics), JSSATE, Bangalore 560 060 2
 3.​ Meissner effect: When a material transitions into the superconducting
state, it expels magnetic flux from its
interior, a phenomenon known as the
Meissner effect. This property of
superconductors is similar to that of the
diamagnetic material kept in a magnetic
field. To appreciate this point we know
from the concept of Electricity and
Magnetism that when a material is
placed in an external magnetic field H,
the magnetic flux density B inside it is
given by
𝐵 = 𝐻 + 4π𝑀

where, M is the magnetisation of the specimen. When this specimen happens

to be a superconductor in a superconducting state, then Meissner B=0
𝑀 1
𝐻 =− 4π𝑀 ⇒ 𝐻
= −4π
= χ

which is the value of susceptibility of a diamagnetic material. Thus, we may

conclude that a superconductor behaves like a perfectly diamagnetic material.
4.​ Critical temperature
Superconductivity exists only below a material-specific transition temperature
Tc. Several materials exhibit superconducting transitions at low temperatures.
The highest critical temperature Tc was about 23 K until the discovery of some
high-temperature superconductors in 1986. Among the conventional
superconductors, Niobium metal has the highest critical temperature of 9.2 K.
However, metallic compounds and alloys possess even higher Tc values. For
example, Tc of Nb3Ge is 23.2 K. Table below shows some representative
element (metals) and inter-metallic compound superconductors and their
respective Tc

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor (Physics), JSSATE, Bangalore 560 060 3

 5.​ Critical Current:
The critical current, Ic of a superconductor represents the maximum electrical
current that a superconducting material can carry without losing its
superconducting state and reverting to a normal, resistive state. In the
absence of an external magnetic field, we can write the critical current, lc, that
can be passed through a superconducting wire of radius r as
𝑙𝑐 = 2π𝑟𝐻𝑐

where Hc is the critical magnetic field of the superconductor.

The bulk current that can flow through a superconducting wire per unit area of
cross-section without destroying its superconducting properties is called
critical current density, Jc given as

where A is the area of cross-section of the wire.

5.1. Derivation for Critical Current for a cylindrical wire using ampere’s
law: Consider a circular Ampèrian path of radius r centered on the wire axis.
By symmetry the magnetic induction B is azimuthal (circumferential) and its
magnitude depends only on Ampère's law (magnetostatic
form) is

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor (Physics), JSSATE, Bangalore 560 060 4

A common practical criterion for critical current is that superconductivity is
destroyed when the magnetic induction at the surface reaches a threshold
value.
Using the surface-field Ba=Bc condition and substitute the surface field from in
the above equation and solve for the critical current Ic, we get

6.​ Silsbee effect

Superconductivity is also destroyed if
the current exceeds a maximum value,
called the critical current Ic. According
to the Silsbee effect, this occurs when
the magnetic field at the surface reaches
the critical field Hc. If the strength of the
applied magnetic field is increased, the
screening (shielding) current must also
increase to maintain perfect
diamagnetism. However, there is a limit
to the density of current which can be
carried by the superconducting specimen. Thus, if the gradually increasing
current in the superconductor due to increasing applied magnetic field attains
this limiting value of the current density, the superconductor makes a
transition from the superconducting to normal state. And, this value of the
applied magnetic field is known as critical magnetic field. The critical magnetic
field, Hc is a function of the temperature of the superconductor and the
relation is given as

Note that the value of the critical magnetic field

decreases from some value H0 at very low temperature as the temperature
increases and it becomes zero at Tc.

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor (Physics), JSSATE, Bangalore 560 060 5

 7.​ Formation of Cooper Pairs – Mediation of Phonons
In conventional superconductors, the key microscopic mechanism is the
formation of Cooper pairs, bound states of two electrons with opposite
momenta and spins. Despite their mutual Coulomb repulsion, electrons
effectively attract each other via lattice vibrations called phonons. As one
electron passes through the lattice, it distorts the positively charged ion lattice,
creating a local region of increased positive charge that attracts a second
electron. This effective electron–electron attraction leads to pairing. The binding
energy of a Cooper pair is related to the energy gap Δ of the superconductor:
Epair=2Δ
At zero temperature, the gap Δ(0) is approximately related to the critical
temperature Tc as:
Δ(0)≈1.76 kBTc
where kB​ is the Boltzmann constant. Cooper pairs condense into a coherent
quantum state, enabling superconductivity.
8.​ Two-Fluid Model of Superconductivity
The two-fluid model, proposed by Gorter and Casimir (1934), is one of the
earliest phenomenological approaches to explain the behavior of
superconductors. According to this model, below the critical temperature Tc,
the conduction electrons in a superconductor are divided into two
interpenetrating components: the normal fluid and the superfluid. The normal
fluid consists of electrons that behave like ordinary conduction electrons and
are responsible for resistive processes, while the superfluid consists of
Cooper-paired electrons that move without scattering and hence carry current
without dissipation.
If nnn is the total electron density, then the model assumes:

where ns(T) is the density of superfluid electrons and n(T) is the density of
normal electrons. At absolute zero (T=0), all electrons are in the
superconducting state, so ns = n and nn​=0. As the temperature increases
towards Tc, the superfluid fraction decreases, and at T=Tc, ns= and nn=n.
The temperature dependence is often expressed phenomenologically as:

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor (Physics), JSSATE, Bangalore 560 060 6

This model explains many important superconducting properties. The zero
resistivity arises because the current is carried by the superfluid component,
which does not experience
scattering. The finite thermal
conductivity at low
temperatures is explained by
the normal fluid, which carries
entropy and heat.
Furthermore, the
electrodynamic behavior
(such as the London
penetration depth of magnetic
fields) can be described by
associating magnetic field
screening currents with the
superfluid component.
Thus, the two-fluid model provides a qualitative and semi-quantitative
understanding of superconductivity by postulating a coexistence of two distinct
electron populations within the material, one responsible for dissipation and
the other for perfect conductivity.
9.​ BCS Theory – Phase Coherent State
One of the central ideas of the BCS (Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer) theory of
superconductivity is that electrons near the Fermi surface form bound pairs
known as Cooper pairs. These pairs are not localized like molecules but
instead extend over hundreds of lattice spacings, overlapping strongly with
other pairs. The remarkable feature of BCS theory is that all Cooper pairs
condense into a single macroscopic quantum state that is characterized by a
common wavefunction with a well-defined phase. This is referred to as the
phase coherent state of superconductivity.
Mathematically, the superconducting condensate can be represented by an
order parameter:

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor (Physics), JSSATE, Bangalore 560 060 7

Here, ∣Ψ∣ represents the density
of Cooper pairs, while ϕ denotes
the collective quantum
mechanical phase of the system.
Unlike in normal metals, where
electrons behave independently,
in a superconductor all pairs act
coherently, sharing the same
phase. This coherence gives rise
to superconducting properties
such as zero resistance and the
Meissner effect.
The phase coherence explains
why the superconducting current flows without dissipation: a disturbance to a
single pair cannot destroy the collective order, since the entire condensate
resists scattering in a correlated way. Moreover, the quantum nature of this
phase leads to observable macroscopic effects such as the Josephson effect,
where current can tunnel between two superconductors depending on the
phase difference of their order parameters.
Thus, the BCS phase coherent state is the cornerstone of superconductivity,
transforming a collection of independent electrons into a single macroscopic
quantum entity governed by a unified phase.
9.1 Limitations of BCS Theory
Although BCS theory successfully describes conventional low-temperature
superconductors, it has several limitations:
1.​ High-Tc superconductors: BCS cannot fully explain the pairing
mechanism in cuprates and iron-based superconductors.​
2.​ Strong-coupling effects: Materials with very strong electron-phonon
interactions may require Eliashberg theory, as BCS assumes weak
coupling.​
3.​ Non-phonon pairing: BCS relies on phonon-mediated attraction; in
systems with other pairing mechanisms (e.g., spin fluctuations), BCS
fails.
9.2. Examples of Systems with Low and High Electron-Phonon Coupling

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor (Physics), JSSATE, Bangalore 560 060 8

 ●​ Low electron-phonon coupling (weak-coupling): Aluminum (Al), Tin
(Sn), and Lead (Pb) are conventional superconductors where the BCS
approximation is accurate.​
●​ High electron-phonon coupling (strong-coupling): Niobium (Nb),
Mercury (Hg), and lead under high pressure exhibit stronger
phonon-mediated pairing, requiring corrections to the BCS predictions.

10.​ Type I & II Superconductors:

10.1 Type I Super Conductors: The behaviour of type-I superconductors, at a
given temperature, T and in uniform external magnetic field, H can be
described as follows: If the applied magnetic field, H is smaller than a critical
value Hc , the superconductor in its superconducting state completely expels
the magnetic flux from its interior (Meissner effect); as the external field is
increased above the critical value Hc , the
entire specimen reverts from the
superconducting to the normal state.
Refer to Fig. 13.8 which shows the
schematic variation of magnetisation M)4(
with applied field H. Note in the figure
that when field H increases,
magnetisation M also increases linearly
up to the critical field, Hc . At Hc , M
suddenly decreases to zero and the
superconductor specimen makes a
transition to its normal state. Further, we
know from the Meissner effect that for Hc<, Hc(T, B=0 in the interior of the
superconductor. So, for this condition, we can write,
𝐵 = 𝐻 + 4π𝑀 = 0 ⇒ 𝐻 =− 4π𝑀

Generally, the value of Hc for type-I superconductors is very small i.e., 0.1 T to
0.2 T. Thus, only a small magnetic field is required to destroy the
superconducting nature of a type-I superconductor. Some typical examples of
type-I superconductors are Lead, Tin, Aluminium and Mercury.

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor (Physics), JSSATE, Bangalore 560 060 9

10.2 Type-II Superconductors:
Type-II superconductors are a class of materials that exhibit superconductivity
below a certain critical
temperature Tc and are
characterised by their unique
response to external magnetic
fields as depicted in Figures .
Schematic phase diagram
illustrating normal, mixed and
Meissner regions of a type-II
superconductor. The unique
response of type-II superconductors to the applied magnetic field is depicted in
Figure Unlike type-I superconductors, which completely expel magnetic fields
up to a single critical field (Hc), type-II superconductors have two critical
magnetic fields: a lower critical field (Hc1) and an upper critical field (Hc2). As
the external magnetic field is increased above the lower critical field and its
value is below the value of the upper critical field value Hc2, the flux partially
penetrates the specimen, and the sample is said to be in a mixed state or
vortex state. The mixed state is obtained when the applied field has values
between two critical fields Hc1(T) and Hc2 (T ) in which normal and
superconducting regions coexist in the specimen. The equilibrium curves
Hc1(T) and Hc2 (T ) divide the H-T plane in normal, mixed and Meissner
regions.
The value of Hc2 is high i.e., 10.0 T to 20.0T. So, a high magnetic field is
required to completely destroy the superconducting state of the type-II
superconductor. That is why type-II superconductors are called hard
superconductors. Some typical examples of type-II superconductors are
Niobium, Niobium-tin, Niobium-titanium and Germanium.
Type-II superconductors are used in the following applications:
●​ Type-II superconductors are used in power generators.
●​ Type-II superconductors can carry very high current densities; therefore,
they have great technological importance.
●​ The high magnetic fields produced by type-II superconductors are used
in particle accelerators, plasma production, fusion reaction etc.
●​ The strong magnetic field required for magnetic levitation is generated
using type-II superconducting wires and cables.

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor (Physics), JSSATE, Bangalore 560 060 10

 11.​ Andreev (Retro-)Reflection
Cooper Pair Tunnelling Process: When a
normal metal is separated from a
superconductor by a thin insulating
barrier (N–I–S junction), single electrons
cannot easily tunnel into the
superconductor at energies below the
superconducting energy gap Δ. Instead,
pairs of electrons with opposite spin and
momentum can tunnel together as a
Cooper pair, joining the superconducting condensate. This process leads to
the Josephson effect, where a supercurrent flows across the barrier without
any applied voltage, governed by the phase difference of the superconducting
order parameters on both sides.
12.​ Andreev (Retro-)Reflection: At a
clean normal–superconductor (N–S) interface
without an insulating barrier, an electron incident
from the normal side with energy less than the
gap Δ cannot enter the superconductor alone.
Instead, it pairs with another electron to form a
Cooper pair inside the superconductor, while a
hole is reflected back into the normal region
along the reverse path of the incoming electron.
This process, known as Andreev reflection or retro-reflection, ensures
conservation of charge and momentum, while enabling Cooper pair injection
into the superconducting state. As it can be seen from the above figure, a net
charge of 2e is transferred from the left to the right electrode, and at low
voltages Andreev reflection is the only process responsible for the electrical
current. Above the superconducting gap, eV>Δ, transmission of an incident
electron into the superconductor also contributes to the current.

13.​ Josephson Junction and Josephson Effects

1. Josephson Junction
A Josephson Junction is formed when two superconductors are separated by
a very thin insulating barrier (on the order of a few nanometers). Despite the
presence of this insulating layer, quantum mechanical tunneling allows pairs of
electrons, known as Cooper pairs, to move coherently from one
Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor (Physics), JSSATE, Bangalore 560 060 11
superconductor to the other. This is possible due to the macroscopic phase
coherence of the superconducting wavefunction.
The superconducting
wavefunction in each electrode
can be written as

where ∣Ψi​∣ is proportional to the

Cooper pair density, and ϕi​ is
the quantum mechanical phase
of the condensate. The
difference in phase across the
junction,
Δϕ=ϕ1−ϕ2
governs the flow of supercurrent through the junction. The Josephson
relation for supercurrent is:

where Ic is the critical current of the junction, the maximum supercurrent

that can flow without resistance.
2. Flux Quantization
In a superconducting ring or loop, the macroscopic wavefunction must be
single-valued. This requirement leads to the condition that the phase change
around a closed path must be an integer multiple of 2π. When a magnetic flux
Φ threads the loop, the quantization condition leads to:
ϕ = 𝑛ϕ0, n∈Z

Where ϕ0 = ℎ
2𝑒

is the flux quantum, a fundamental constant approximately equal to

2.07×10−15Wb.
Flux quantization plays a central role in superconducting quantum
interference devices (SQUIDs), which exploit the sensitivity of Josephson
junctions to magnetic flux for precision measurements.
Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor (Physics), JSSATE, Bangalore 560 060 12
3. DC Josephson Effect
The DC Josephson Effect arises when no external voltage is applied across the
junction. In this case, a constant phase difference Δϕ exists between the two
superconductors, resulting in a steady supercurrent:

Key features:
●​ The current flows without any applied voltage — a purely quantum
phenomenon.​
●​ This is analogous to the tunneling of Cooper pairs through the insulating
barrier.​
●​ The maximum sustainable current is the critical current Ic If the
current exceeds this value, the junction switches to a resistive state.​

Thus, the DC Josephson effect demonstrates supercurrent tunneling without

a voltage drop.
4. AC Josephson Effect
When a constant voltage V is applied across the Josephson junction, the phase
difference evolves with time. From quantum mechanics, the energy change
associated with Cooper pair transfer is related to the applied voltage:

Integrating:

Substituting into the current relation:

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor (Physics), JSSATE, Bangalore 560 060 13

This represents an oscillating
supercurrent with frequency

The AC Josephson Effect is a direct link

between applied voltage and frequency of
oscillation.
Implications:
●​ The frequency-voltage relation is extremely precise and is used to define
the volt standard in metrology.​
●​ When microwaves are applied, Shapiro steps appear in the I–V
characteristics of the junction, confirming the quantized voltage relation.​
14.​ Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices
(SQUIDs)
Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices, commonly abbreviated as
SQUIDs, are extremely sensitive detectors of magnetic flux that exploit the
quantum mechanical properties of superconductivity. Their operation is based
on the principles of flux quantization and the Josephson effect. A SQUID
essentially converts tiny changes in magnetic flux into measurable electrical
signals. Two main types of SQUIDs are widely used: the DC SQUID and the RF
SQUID. Although both are based on similar principles, their configurations and
modes of operation are different.

1. The DC SQUID
The Direct Current (DC) SQUID is the most
commonly used configuration. It consists of
a superconducting loop interrupted by two
Josephson junctions placed in parallel.
When a magnetic flux Φ threads the loop,
quantum interference between the currents
through the two junctions modifies the
overall supercurrent flowing through the
device.

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor (Physics), JSSATE, Bangalore 560 060 14

Qualitative Operation
●​ In the absence of an external magnetic field, the supercurrents through
both junctions interfere constructively, allowing a maximum critical
current through the SQUID.​
●​ When an external magnetic flux is applied, the phase difference across
the junctions adjusts in accordance with the flux quantization condition:​

●​ As a result, the critical current of the SQUID oscillates periodically with

the applied flux, with a period of one flux quantum. This periodicity
allows the device to function as a very sensitive magnetometer.​
●​ To measure the oscillations, a constant bias current slightly above the
critical current is applied. The voltage across the SQUID then oscillates
as a function of the magnetic flux.
Mathematical Interpretation: (Beyond Syllabus): The DC SQUID consists of a
superconducting loop with two identical Josephson [Link] superconducting
wavefunction around the loop must satisfy single-valuedness. This condition imposes:

●​

Supercurrent in the DC SQUID

Each junction carries a current:

The total current is:

Using the trigonometric identity and the constraint on phase differences, one finds:

Thus, the effective critical current of the SQUID is:

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor (Physics), JSSATE, Bangalore 560 060 15
Voltage–Flux Relation
If the applied bias current

​,

a voltage develops across the SQUID. This voltage is periodic in magnetic flux:

with period Φ0
Hence, the DC SQUID produces an oscillating voltage output as a function of applied
magnetic flux, making it an ultra-sensitive flux-to-voltage transducer.
2. The RF SQUID
The Radio-Frequency (RF) SQUID is a simpler variant of the SQUID, consisting of a
superconducting loop interrupted by only one Josephson junction. It is operated by
coupling the loop inductively to an RF resonant circuit.
Qualitative Operation
●​ The applied magnetic flux changes the phase across the single Josephson
junction, modifying the effective inductance of the loop.​
●​ This superconducting loop is coupled
to a resonant LC circuit (tank circuit),
typically driven at a radio frequency.​
●​ When the flux threading the loop
changes, the impedance of the
SQUID alters, which in turn modifies
the response of the RF circuit (for
example, the amplitude or phase of
the reflected RF signal).​
●​ By monitoring these changes in the RF circuit, one can infer the applied magnetic
flux.
Key Features
Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor (Physics), JSSATE, Bangalore 560 060 16
 ●​ Simpler construction (only one Josephson junction).​
●​ Less sensitive compared to the DC SQUID, but still capable of detecting extremely
small flux changes.​
●​ Easier to fabricate and operate with RF readout circuits.​
●​ Often used where moderate sensitivity is sufficient or where simpler designs are
preferred.

Dr. Nityanand Choudhary, Professor (Physics), JSSATE, Bangalore 560 060 17