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STUDENT DEVELOPMENT AND LIFE SKILLS MODULE

SDLS401

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. VALUES AND RIGHTS

2. GENDER ROLES AND EQUITY

3. RELATIONSHIPS

4. COMMUNICATION

5. SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIOUS AND HIV

6. SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES FOR SRH

7. DRUGS AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE

8. SEXUAL AND GENDER VIOLENCE

9. HUMAN TRAFFICKING

10. LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIES FOR SR

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Student Development and Life Skills Module

(Course Overview, Course Content Synopsis and Assignments)

1. Module Student Development and Life Skills

2. MODULE CODE SDLS401
3. Course Moderator Dr. J. Kwaramba

4. Course Coordinator Mr Sebastian Mutambisi

5. Contact Details Office 7, Student Services Centre;

Phone +263 242 333 Ext 21000
studentaffairs@[Link]

6. Duration:
The Student Development and Life Skills Module is a compulsory online course
which is offered to all undergraduate students from Level 1 until they complete
their studies.

7. Course Overview:
The Student Development and Life Skills Module is designed to complement
academic departments in facilitating balanced and holistic student development.
The Module is premised on the philosophy that man is a social organism with
cognitive, moral, physical, spiritual and emotional dimensions with great potential
for growth through education. Several student development theories have been
selected to create a theoretical framework for students to understand
potentialities which exist in embryonic form within them from birth. These
potentialities have inherent propensities to develop into unique competences and
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capabilities; which are herein referred to as life skills. Such skills are necessary for
personal efficiency and effectiveness in life.

For this Module, we have carefully selected topics which are envisaged to enable
students to explore various aspects of life. The Module is intentionally and
strategically tailored to stimulate development of essential life skills in students.

The purpose of this Module is foster in students a broad range of life skills (social,
soft and technical skills) which are usually not taught in class. The ultimate goal of
the Module is to nurture confident, efficacious and dexterous students, with a
deep appreciation of who they are. Personal effectiveness, productive and
maximized living are at the core of the Module. Key competences targeted in this
Module include self-awareness, self-confidence, self-esteem, self-efficacy, self-
actualization, critical thinking, problem-solving skills, organizational skills,
creativity, innovation, inventiveness, negotiation skills, interpersonal skills,
communication skills, leadership skills, dealing with peer pressure and adversity,
listening and learning skills, entrepreneurship, community consciousness, etc.

1. Teaching and Learning Methods:

This Module is delivered online, allowing students to take charge of their learning
through active interaction with learning materials and the immediate and wide
environment in which they operate. As Albert Einstein would say, “I never teach
my

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pupils. I can only attempt to provide the conditions in which they learn.” The
University holds that, a deep student-centered approach to teaching and learning
ought to prepare ‘prepare graduates for the road, instead of creating the road for
graduates’. Methods used in this Module will ensure that students have full
ownership and control of their learning processes.

The following methods will be employed from time to time, as directed by the
course Unit facilitators:

 Introductory lectures (upon request and where necessary),

 Individual practical assignments,
 Group assignments and presentations,
 Edutainment,
 Mentorship and Coaching,
 Field work and community outreach,
 Symposia, conferences and seminars,
 Online sessions, and
 Motivational sessions.

6.1 Student Development Cohorts:

Students shall be required to arrange themselves into Student Development
Cohorts of 10 individuals per group. Running under the mantra, ‘Learning
Together, Growing Together’, students will do most tasks in these Cohorts.
This method of teams is designed to cultivate team spirit, group dynamics and
promote collaboration.

6.2 Accountability Partnerships:

In the context of Student Development Cohorts, group members are expected
select an individual they wish to learn and share with their insights throughout
a given academic year. Accountability Partnerships are designed to promote
team work, shared learning, self-esteem and confidence.

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6.3 Plagiarism:
This refers to stealing and passing off the ideas or words of another as one's
own; i.e., to use another's production or intellectual property without crediting
the source. Plagiarism is strictly prohibited, and will lead to disqualification
and/or serious disciplinary measures taken against the perpetrator. Students
can work in Accountability Partnerships and Student Development Cohorts but
their individual efforts must be standout. These collaborations should not be
sources of overdependence on others.

6.4 Cheating and Misrepresentation:

In contemporary settings, students have developed the habit of recycling old
assignments from their predecessors. Student also tend to generate
assessment reports on their community services and fieldwork. Such habits are
strictly prohibited. Perpetrators of such malpractices will be prosecuted and
their products of cheating or misrepresentation nullified.

2. Course Evaluation:
This is a very practical Module which requires that students acquire practical
knowledge of life skills than mere theory. Coursework and community
outreach will contribute 60% of the total score at the end of the academic year
and the examination at the end of the academic year shall contribute 40%.
Students shall be required to submit written assignments and one Community
Service report at least one month before every end of semester examinations.
Written Assignments and Submission Deadlines.

Please note that assignment submission deadlines cannot be negotiated. All

late assignments will not be marked.

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2.1 Community Service Reports and Assessment

Students shall be required to seek placement and conduct Community Service
at any Government institution of their choice. Each host institution shall be
required to assess students using the evaluation instrument provided by the
University. The student shall also be required to submit a written report (of
not more than 500 words) highlighting life skills enhanced by embarking in
Community Services during the period under review. Submitting false reports
will lead to automatic disqualification of the entire year’s Student
Development and Life Skills coursework and examination results. Honesty and
integrity are some of the key soft skills students must learn and uphold during
the course of their studies.

3. Submission of Assignments
Assignments shall be submitted in a manner prescribed by Module
Facilitators. No assignments or Community Service report should be sent to
the Module Moderator. Students are expected to stay in constant contact
with their Faculty- specific Student Development Officers for updates on the
implementation of this course.

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UNIT 1
RIGHTS AND VALUES
AUTHORED BY MR MACHANJA BENNY

“…if I have a right to freedom, then I have a justified claim to be left alone by others . Turned around, I
can say that others have a duty or responsibility to leave me alone. If I have a right to an education, then
I have a justified claim to be provided with an education by society.”
. [Link]

1. Areas of Growth

This unit aims to equip learners with knowledge of human rights and the mechanisms that protect
them and also empower them to take action to defend and promote human rights, democracy and
the rule of law.

The development of individual human rights values and attitudes takes center stage in this unit
being guided by a heightened self – awareness programme of action. The tasks and assignments
of this unit serve to stimulate students thinking capacities as they:

 Join and actively participate in various student groupings, clubs and community
service engagements promoting and defending human rights and freedoms
 Consult peers and staff on matters of human rights, and
 Craft resolutions to guide autonomous behaviour cognisance of the existence of other
people’s rights and freedoms.
2. Objectives:
This unit is designed to ensure that students are able to:
 Explain what characterise human rights and its origin;
 Survey the state of human rights in own communities;
 Come up with a human rights advocacy program for use in communities
3. Learning Outcomes
Having been conscientized on the beliefs of human rights, democracy and rule of law students
should:
 Become defenders of human rights, democracy and rule of law;
 Become empowerment agents for8 the promotion and protection of human rights,
democracy and rule of law
4. Definition of Terms
4.1 Democracy
 A government by the people, especially rule
9 of the majority, in which the supreme power
is vested in the people and exercised by them directly or indirectly through a system of
representation usually involving periodically held free elections (Merriam Webster
Dictionary).
4.2 Rule of Law
The rule of law is a political ideal that all citizens and institutions within a country, state, or
community are accountable to the same laws, including lawmakers and leaders ( Sempill,
Julian (2020). "The Rule of Law and the Rule of Men: History, Legacy, Obscurity". Hague
Journal on the Rule of Law. 12 (3): 511–540
4.3 The Meaning of Human Rights
 Human rights are rights we have simply because we exist as human beings -
they are not granted by any state. These universal rights are inherent to us all,
regardless of nationality, sex, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or
any other status.
 They range from the most fundamental - the right to life - to those that make life
worth living, such as the rights to food, education, work, health, and liberty.
 Human rights can also be identifiable by some other names such as civil-liberties,
civil-rights, constitutional rights, natural rights, rights of citizenship or unalienable
rights.

4.4 Human Rights Principles

 Universal and inalienable -The principle of universality of human rights is the
cornerstone of international human rights law. This means that we are all equally
entitled to our human rights.
 Human rights are inalienable. They should not be taken away, except in specific
situations and according to due process. For example, the right to liberty may be
restricted if a person is found guilty of a crime by a court of law.
 All human rights are indivisible and interdependent - This means that one set of
rights cannot be enjoyed fully without the other.
 For example, making progress in civil and political rights makes it easier to
exercise economic, social and cultural rights.
 Similarly, violating economic, social and cultural rights can negatively affect
many other rights.

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5. Origins of Human Rights.
Its roots lie in earlier tradition and documents of many cultures. The origins of Human Rights
are ideally pinpointed to the year 539 BC. When the troops of Cyrus the Great conquered
 Babylon Cyrus freed the slaves, declared 1that all people had the right to choose their own
religion, and established racial equality. 0
[Link]

5.1 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The power of the Universal Declaration is the power of ideas to change the world. It inspires us to
continue working to ensure all people can gain freedom, equality and dignity.

5.2 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), adopted by the UN General
Assembly in 1948, was the first legal document to set out the fundamental human rights to
be universally protected.
5.3 Here are full list of 30 human rights according to Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (UDHR) by United Nations, signed in Paris on 10 December 1948.
5.3.1 All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are
endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of
brotherhood.
5.3.2 No discrimination. Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms, without
distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other
opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no
distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international
status of the country or territory to which a person belongs.
5.3.3 Right to life. Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.
5.3.4 No slavery. No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave
trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.
5.3.5 No torture and inhuman treatment. No one shall be subjected to torture or to
cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.
5.3.6 Same right to use law. Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a
person before the law.
5.3.7 Equal before the law. All are equal before the law and are entitled without any
discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection
against any discrimination in violation and against any incitement to such
discrimination.
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5.3.8 Right to fair treatment by the
0 court. Everyone has the right to an effective
remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights
granted him by the constitution or by law.
5.3.9 No unfair detainment. No one1 shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or
exile. 1

5.3.10. Right to trial. Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing
by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and
obligations and of any criminal charge against him.
5.3.11. Innocent until proved guilty Everyone charged with a penal offence has the
right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at
which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defense. No one shall be held
guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute
a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was
committed.
5.3.12 Right to privacy. No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his
privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and
reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference
or attacks.
5.3.13. Freedom to movement and residence. Everyone has the right to freedom of
movement and residence within the borders of each state. Everyone has the right to
leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country.
5.3.14 Right to asylum. Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries
asylum from persecution. This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions
genuinely arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and
principles of the United Nations.
5.3.15 Right to nationality. Everyone has the right to a nationality. No one shall be
arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality
5.3.16 Rights to marry and have family. Men and women of full age, without any
limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a
family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its
dissolution. Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the
intending spouses. The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and
is entitled to protection by society and the State.
5.3.17 Right to own things. Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in
association with others. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.
5.3.18 Freedom of thought and religion Everyone has the right to freedom of thought,
conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief,
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and freedom, either alone or in community
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with others and in public or private, to
manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.
5.3.19 Freedom of opinion and expression. Everyone has the right to freedom of
opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without
interference and to seek, receive and
1 impart information and ideas through any media
and regardless of frontiers. 2

5.3.20 Right to assemble. Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and
association. No one may be compelled to belong to an association.
4.3.21 Right to democracy. Everyone has the right to take part in the government of
his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives. Everyone has the right
of equal access to public service in his country.
5.3.22 Right to social security. Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to
social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international
co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of
the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free
development of his personality.
5.3.23 Right to work. Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to
just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.
Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work.
Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his
interests.
5.3.24 Right to rest and holiday. Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including
reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay.
5.3.25 Right of social service. Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate
for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing,
housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the
event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of
livelihood in circumstances beyond his control. Motherhood and childhood are entitled
to special care and assistance. All children shall enjoy the same social protection.
5.3.26 Right to education. Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free,
at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be
compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available
and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
5.3.27. Right of cultural and art. Everyone has the right freely to participate in the
cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement
and its benefits. Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material
interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the
author.
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5.3.28 Freedom around the world. 2 Everyone is entitled to a social and international
order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully
realized.
 5.3.29. Subject to law. Everyone has
1 duties to the community in which alone the free
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and full development of his personality is possible. In the exercise of his rights and
freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law
solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and
freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and
the general welfare in a democratic society.
5.3.30 Human rights can’t be taken away. Nothing in this Declaration may be
interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any
activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and
freedoms set forth herein. So those are all Universal Declaration of Human Rights list
by United Nations

Individual Task 1: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), article 30 is very clear that
Human rights cannot be taken away. Basing on your experience as a student, fill in the following
table giving examples of how the following rights can be taken away or violated:

Human Right Depravation Ways

Education
Shelter
Work
Leisure and Rest
Food
Clothing
Justice
Family
Religion
Political

Individual Task 2 “The power of the Universal Declaration is the power of ideas to change the world.
It inspires us to continue working to ensure all people can gain freedom, equality and dignity.” Make
an observation of people living in your community and note with examples how both the young and
the old:
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a) might have lost their freedom 3
b) are engaged in activities which promotes inequities
c) might have lost their dignity.
Group Task 2: Create a round table discussion group 1and identify who
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a) the violators of human rights are in your community?
b) the protectors of human rights are in your community?

6. The State and Human Rights

In the preamble to the Universal Declaration the United Nations had the following to say:
“Now, Therefore THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY proclaims THIS UNIVERSAL
DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS as a common standard of achievement for all peoples
and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this
Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for
these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their
universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States
themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction.”

6.1 Conventions Treaties and Legal Instruments

To fulfil the Universal Declaration member States have to pledge themselves to achieve, in co-
operation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of
human rights and fundamental freedoms through becoming signatories to human rights
conventions, treaties and other legal instruments.

The UDHR, together with the 2 covenants - the International Covenant for Civil and Political
Rights, and the International Covenant for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - make up
the International Bill of Rights.

6.2 Both rights and obligations

All States have ratified at least 1 of the 9 core human rights treaties, as well as 1 of the 9
optional protocols. Eighty per cent of States have ratified 4 or more. This means that States
have obligations and duties under international law to respect, protect and fulfill human rights.
 The obligation to respect means that States must refrain from interfering with or
curtailing the enjoyment of human rights.
 The obligation to protect requires States to protect individuals and groups against
human rights abuses
 The obligation to fulfill means that States must take positive action to facilitate the
enjoyment of basic human rights.
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Group Task 2: Find out and cite the necessary human rights convections, treaties and other legal
instruments in which the state of Zimbabwe is:
 a) a signatory 1
b) not a signatory and find out the reasons why 5

Individual Task 3: Cite the relevant section and sub section of the Zimbabwean constitution
protecting the universal rights. Critique this theory against practice

7. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) Abbreviated 30 Articles

Individual Task 4: Rate the applicability of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)’s
Abbreviated 30 articles in the community which you live on a scale 1 to 5

Key: 5 Excellent 4 Good 3 Average 2 Poor 1 Unsatisfactory

ARTICLE 1 2 3 4 5
1 Right to Equality
2 Freedom from Discrimination
3 Right to Life, Liberty, Personal Security
4 Freedom from Slavery
5 Freedom from Torture and Degrading Treatment
6 Right to Recognition as a Person before the Law
7 Right to Equality before the Law
8 Right to Remedy by Competent Tribunal
9 Freedom from Arbitrary Arrest and Exile
1 Right to Fair Public Hearing
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1 Right to be Considered Innocent until Proven Guilty
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1 Freedom from Interference with Privacy, Family, Home and
2 Correspondence
1 Right to Free Movement in and out of the Country
3
1 Right to Asylum in other Countries from Persecution
4
1 1 It
Right to a Nationality and the Freedom to Change
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1 Right to Marriage and Family
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 1 Right to Own Property 1
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1 Freedom of Belief and Religion

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1 Freedom of Opinion and Information
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2 Right of Peaceful Assembly and Association
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2 Right to Participate in Government and in Free Elections
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2 Right to Social Security
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2 Right to Desirable Work and to Join Trade Unions
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2 Right to Rest and Leisure
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2 Right to Adequate Living Standard
5
2 Right to Education
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2 Right to Participate in the Cultural Life of Community
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2 Right to a Social Order that Articulates this Document
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2 Community Duties Essential to Free and Full Development
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3 Freedom from State or Personal Interference in the above Rights
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Group Task 3: Create a round table discussion group and critique the applicability/non applicability of
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)’s 30 articles in the community which you live
you fact checked in Individual Task 1 above

8. Human Rights Values

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Values are individual beliefs that motivate people to act one way or another. They serve as a
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guide for human behavior. Generally, people are predisposed to adopt the values that they are
raised with. People also tend to believe that those values are “right” because they are the values of
their particular culture.
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[Link] › glossary › values

From the foregoing definition, a set of values have been grouped and classified as human
rights. They can be defined as civil and political rights of the individual in relation to the state.
Currently one can list the following values as examples of human rights:
 The right to life - inclusive of subsistent right to food and water;
 human dignity – inclusive of assisting the handicapped and the underprivileged;
 protection of the vulnerable – inclusive of children and the venerable;
 safety from violence, right to a nationality, equality inclusive of gender and ethnicity,
 freedom of religion – as long as politicized characteristics are excluded,
 freedom of association,
 fair trial,
 peaceful protest,
 health care,
 right to education,
 freedom of movement within self-governing states;
 fair working conditions,
 Right to property.
 Freedom of thought;
 freedom of speech and expression – including freedom of the media – as expected
possess exclusions relevant to proportionality; for example: libel and defamation, as
well as information relating to contemporary occurrences that imperil public safety
and security.
 Freedom of information,
 protection of personal data,
 Health & safety.
Group Task 4: From the aforesaid definition of human right values and examples given:
a) List at least 10 values from your culture which are human rights related.
b) Explain how the human right values are protected and transmitted within your culture

10. Human Rights Values in Education

10.1 Human Rights Education Definition Human1

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Rights Education is all about equipping people with the knowledge, skills and values to
recognize, claim and defend their rights. Various Human Rights organizations and representatives
 have defined human rights education in their 1own ways. Here are some of the most prominent
definitions: 8

“Education, training and information aimed at building a universal culture of human rights. A
comprehensive education in human rights not only provides knowledge about human rights and the
mechanisms that protect them, but also imparts the skills needed to promote, defend and apply human
rights in daily life. Human rights education fosters the attitudes and behaviours needed to uphold human
rights for all members of society.” (United Nations World Programme)
“Through human rights education you can empower yourself and others to develop the skills and
attitudes that promote equality, dignity and respect in your community, society and worldwide.”
(Amnesty International)

“Human rights education builds knowledge, skills and attitudes prompting behavior that upholds human
rights. It is a process of empowerment which helps identify human rights problems and seek solutions in
line with human rights principles. It is based on the understanding of our own responsibility to make
human rights a reality in our community and society at large.” (Navi Pillay, former United Nations High
Commissioner for Human Rights)

“Human rights education means education, training, dissemination, information, practices and activities
which aim, by equipping learners with knowledge, skills and understanding and moulding their attitudes
and behaviour, to empower them to contribute to the building and defence of a universal culture of
human rights in society, with a view to the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental
freedoms.” (Council of Europe)

10.2 Why is Human Rights Education Important?

Human Rights Education is important for many reasons. Below are some of the most frequently
mentioned reasons why human rights education is important.

 Human Rights Education is crucial for building and advancing societies

 Human Rights Education empowers people to know, claim and defend their rights
 Human Rights Education promotes participation in decision making and the peaceful resolution of
conflicts
 Human Rights Education encourages empathy, inclusion and non-discrimination

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Often abbreviated as “HRE,” human rights education 8is also an essential tool for human rights awareness
and empowerment. Many teachers don’t label their curriculum as “human rights education,” but they
include features of HRE. Educational frameworks that consider non-discrimination, gender equality, anti-
 racism, and more help build an understanding and 1respect for human rights. Students learn about their
9 and their responsibility as citizens of the world.
rights, history,

In 2011, the General Assembly adopted the United Nations Declaration for Human Rights Education and
Training. It called on countries to implement human rights education in every sector of society.

Group Task 5: Fill in the table below with activities which recognize the following ten reasons as
important in human rights in education important:

Human Right Education Justification Examples of Activities

It enables people to claim their rights
It teaches young people to respect
diversity
It teaches history
It teaches people to recognize the root
causes of human rights issues
It fosters critical thinking and analytical
skills
It encourages empathy and solidarity
It encourages people to value human
rights
It fuels social justice activities
It helps people support organizations that
uphold human rights
It keeps governments accountable

References 1
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1. Interview from A Path to Dignity: the Power of Human Rights
Education (2012), Human Right Education Associates (HREA), Soka Gakkai
International (SGI), United Nations Office of the High Commission for Human
 Rights (OHCHR), available at [Link]
2 .
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2. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), Article 26.

3. See OHCHR Human Rights Education page: [Link]

Education/Training/Pages/[Link].

4. United Nations World Programme for Human Rights Education, Plan of

Action First Phase, page 3. See also Council of Europe Charter on
Education for Democratic Citizenship and Human Rights Education
(2010), Article 2.

5. United Nations Declaration on Human Rights Education and Training

(2011), Article 2.2.

6. For more detail, see Council of Europe, Compass, Chapter 1

Introduction to Human Rights Education (2002). Also see the website of the
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights at
[Link]
Training/Pages/[Link].

7. Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, adopted by the World

Conference on Human Rights in Vienna (1993), Part I, para. 33 and Part
II, para. 80.

8. UN General Assembly resolution 49/184 (23 December 1994).

9. UN General Assembly resolution 59/113 A (10 December 2004).

10. See Council of Europe, OSCE/ODIHR, UNESCO, OHCHR, Human Rights

Education in the School Systems of Europe, Central Asia and
North America: A Compendium of Good Practice (2009).

11. Of Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland,
Germany and the United States, all have ratified all the treaties mentioned
below, except for the United States which has ratified CERD, and signed the
ICESCR, CRC, CRPD and CEDAW.

12. See General Comment No. 13 (1999) of the Committee on Economic,

Social and Cultural Rights on the right to education, paras. 6(b) and 50.
See also the preliminary report of the Special Rapporteur on the right to
education to the Commission on Human Rights (1999), para. 50. The four
essential features of 2
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the right to education are: availability, accessibility, acceptability and adaptability.

Quality education is considered to be a component of ‘acceptability’.

13. See Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No. 1 (2001) on
 the aims of education and General2 Comment No. 5 (2003) on the general
measures of implementation of 1the Convention of the Rights of the
Child.

14. See Convention on the Rights of the Child, Article 2. See also General
Comment No. 1 (2001) of the Committee on the Rights of the Child
on the aims of education, paras. 10-11.

15. See General Comment No. 5 (2003) of the Committee on the Rights of the
Child on general measures of implementation of the Convention of the
Rights of the Child, para. 30.

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UNIT 2

GENDER ROLES AND EQUALITY

AUTHORED BY DR MUPUPUNI GRACIOUS

2. Areas of growth

 Enhanced sensitivity to gender roles

 Compassion for both sexes
 Resilience
 Better interpersonal skills
 Economic and social empowerment
 Leadership skills

3. Objectives

By the end of this unit students should be able to:

1) Define and exemplify unspoken gender roles and acceptable behaviour among boys and girls in
society.
2) Create opportunities for women and men to negotiate methods of transformative change to reduce
gender inequality.
3) Develop a critical mass of women and men pushing the boundaries of entrenched social norms in
enhancing women’s capacity to aspire
4) Enhance girls' desire for education, which nurtures their aspirations for greater agency.
5) Create a safer space which encourages females to negotiate for more participation and equality in
educational and household discussions and decisions.
6) Break gender to combat traditional victimization, and cyber bullying which is highly detrimental
to youth.
7) Suggest ways of empowering both sexes to effectively assume their gender roles.

3. Learning outcomes

 Inculcation of values that sustain a hierarchy of power which accommodates both males and
females.
2
 A well rounded citizen who is compassionate and
2 sensitive to gender equality.

4. Theoretical framework
The development of norms and values is largely impacted
2 by existing socialization theories. Socialization
Theories explain the progression of individuals and3 the development of human personality within a
conducive social environment (Hurrelmann and Bauer, 2015: 156). Traditional socialization
theories describe socialization as the process in which individuals cultivate norms, values and customs,
and thereby learn prerequisite skills that are necessary for participating in society. This development
leads to psychoanalytic Identity and cognitive and moral development. (Hurrelmann and Ulich, 1980)
proffers the Theory of Moral Development that includes three levels: pre-conventional, conventional, and
post-conventional. At each of these stages, individuals find themselves adopting values and norms that
make them acceptable in society. On the other hand, Freud developed the Psychoanalytic Theory which
focuses on the development of self. According to Cioffi (ed.) Freud (1973) one’s basic biological
instincts combine with socialization processes to shape one’s personality. Freud emphasizes that the core
of human education and personality is formed during childhood and during rest of the life it is elaborated
and sharpened trough socialization. Freud posits that human socialization consists of four stages from
infancy to adulthood, namely, the oral stage, the anal stage, the oedipal stage and adolescence. At each
stage, the child internalizes norms, values and roles, not just one role. Much of the primary socialization
starts from infancy and is influenced by family members. Later on secondary socialization in the form of
education, happens at school, through interaction with teachers, peers and social media. Socialization
continues into adulthood where it is influenced by parenthood, marriage, and careers.

Socialization encompasses being taught how to behave in public places. The process of socialization
enables a person to function within his or their culture. Well socialized individuals will exhibit basic
discipline, behave acceptably in society. The family circle is the most crucial agent of socialization for
children. Parents' values and behavior patterns profoundly influence those of their offspring.
Socialization into acceptable behavior includes teaching children about gender equality and gender
norms.

The United Nations Report of (UN 2000) has highlighted that there is a lack of important knowledge
regarding gender equality among adolescents. Gender norms and gender roles describe how people of a
particular gender and age understand the complex system of roles, expressions, identities, performances,
and qualities that are given gendered meaning by a society. Usually, they are assigned to people based on
their sex. Gender characteristics are dynamic and vary between cultures. Harmful gender roles result in
many types of inequalities between girls and boys. However, while gender norms can affect all youth,
they are proven to disproportionately affect girls than boys. Male children seem to get preferential
treatment to their female counterparts both at home and in the civil society. Females, generally, seem to
2
have been excluded from most political leadership 3roles and they are heavily under-represented in
parliaments and cabinets (UN 2000).

GENDER NORMS
Gender norms are social principles that direct the behavior
2 of girls, boys, women, and men in society and
4
restrict their operations into what is considered to be societally appropriate (. Gender norms express how
people of a particular gender and age understand the complex system of roles, expressions, identities,
performances, and qualities that are given gendered meaning by a society. Usually, roles are assigned to
people based on sex. As such, gender characteristics are dynamic and vary between cultures. Harmful
gender roles result in many types of inequalities among youths. Not all norms are bad. There are some
positive norms, such as, the custom that children should respect and greet the elderly, be kind and they
should not smoke. Conversely, there are negative norms such as the disproportionate distribution of
household chores where girls are more confined to the kitchen than boys in Zimbabwe. Negative g ender
norms lead to inequality Gender norms are social principles that direct the behavior of girls, boys,
women, and men in society and restrict their operations into what is considered to be societally
appropriate. Once adolescents’ childhoods are stolen, the countries where they live are robbed of their
talent and potential.

CAUSES OF GENDER IMBALANCE

Poor access to education by girls negatively impacts their career life and curtails their ability to earn a
living and become independent rendering them dependent on men. In extreme scenarios, such as in sub-
Saharan Africa and Western Asia, girls of every age are more likely to be excluded from education than
boys. For every 100 boys out of school in these regions, 115 and 123 girls, respectively, are denied the
right to education due to deeply ingrained gender norms.

Unhealthy gender norms reinforce the notion of male superiority over women. All the disadvantages that
women experience around the world, from poverty to violence, from ill health to illiteracy, also limit the
advancement of families because women are crucial in raising families. This unit argues that growing
emphasis on gender equality is an essential factor in the process of changing this notion. The support for
gender equality is part of the cultural change that is transforming many societies. This World Bank report
of (UN 2020) On Norms and Agency: Conversations about Gender Equality with Women and Men in 20
Countries, provides tremendous insight on gender norms—an area that has been resistant to change, and
that constrains achievement of gender equality across many diverse cultures.

Theories of socialization have long emphasized the importance of the division of sex roles within a
country especially egalitarian attitudes towards women as political leaders. The theory of Socialization
hypothesizes that in traditional societies, women will be reluctant to run administrative positions
(Inglehart 2022). In most African countries, Zimbabwe included, women and girls are confined to
2
fulfilling roles as mothers, wives and caretakers. Gender
4 norms position girls as caretakers, which leads
to gender inequality. Girls and women are often more likely to have their mobility severely limited,
resulting in more time spent within the home than men and boys. Sometimes girls and boys are assigned
different tasks even when working in the same environment, which exposes them to unique risks and
hazards. On a family farm, for example, boys often bear
2 greater responsibility for operating machinery,
using sharp tools, and spraying chemicals. Girls, on 5the other hand, more often play a role in hauling
water and carrying wood. Parents are often influenced by gender norms about girls’ roles in society and
decide to keep girls home from school in favor of care and domestic work. Boys, on the other hand, are
encouraged to attend and complete school in order to provide for their families. The reasons proffered for
unequal gender relationships include cultural legacies, religious values and lack of modernization which
drives cultural change. Lack of resources is one of the cultural Barriers to Women’s representation
(Yousaf, Grunfeld, Hunter 2017). Theories of socialization have long emphasized the importance of the
division of sex roles within a society (Dick, Ferguson 2015). Cultural explanations hypothesize that in
traditional societies, women are content with peripheral roles. Women now represent 40 percent of the
global labor force. In the past quarter century, we have seen remarkable gains for women. Of late,
women are slowly rising to public life as ministers and a few, as presidents of countries, for example,
Tanzania, and private enterprises (Hope Sadza who owns Women’s University in Zimbabwe). Such
unwavering focus on progress and persistence in achieving gender equality is quite crucial.

It is high time that nations realize that all children deserve to grow up and achieve their dreams regardless
of their gender. Tragically, inequitable gender norms rob millions of girls and boys of their childhoods
and risk their futures. Such damaging expectations directly contribute to the violation of children’s
human rights.

ADVANTAGES OF OFFERING EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES

 Children grow up and achieve their dreams despite their gender.

 Gives both sexes equal access to power through social structures such as politics, economics,
social, health, and education.
 Promotes children’s human rights.
 Nullifies the notion of male superiority/female inferiority
 Encourages internalization of social values and identity commitment
 Consolidates gender role identities
 Drives cultural change

ASSIGNMENT QUESTION

Discuss at least two theories of socialization outlining how they have shaped your personality.
2
What tenets of the theory obtain in your present society?
5 (1000 words)
Characteristics of Masculinity Norms Endorsed in 2Early Adolescence (Adopted from Hindan, Fatusi
2012). 6

 Young adolescents endorse masculinity norms with emphasis on physical toughness

 Society expects men to demonstrate higher tolerance for pain, engage in fights, compete in sports
 Being financially independent
 Protecting and providing for families
 Emotional stoicism, that is, showing vulnerabilities, dealing with problems on one’s own
 Heterosexual prowess for instance, having sex with many girls and having an upper hand in
relationships.
 Boys are more likely to endorse unequal gender norms than girls. There are three potential
explanations for this.
 Sometimes boys may not seek help early, resulting in mental health disorders in boys

Characteristics of femininity endorsed in early adolescence (Adopted from Kågesten, Gibbs Blum
2013)

 Society generally associates traits such as nurturance with femininity

 Females are expected to be sensitive, sweet, supportive, gentle and warm
 Other aspects of femininity include passivity, cooperativeness, expressiveness
 A well behaved woman is expected to be modest, humble and empathetic
 Stereotypical femininity expects a demonstration of affection, tenderness, being emotional, kind,
helpful, devoted, and understanding.

In the table below, insert some of the gender norms practiced by your community which you consider to
be progressive and those you consider to be retrogressive. Suggest ways of improving the norms.

NORM PROGRESSIVE/RETROGRESSIVE HOW TO IMPROVE

2
6

CHAPTERS THAT PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY IN ZIMBABWE

  Save the children 2
 UNDP 7

 Girl Child network

 Say what
 Women Action Group
 Zimbabwe Women’s Lawyers Association

 Campaign for female Education (CAMFED)

 Zimbabwe Lawyers for Human Rights
 Women’s Coalition of Zimbabwe (WCoZ)
 Women and Land rights in Zimbabwe
 Federation of African Women in Media in Zimbabwe

CHAPTERS’ MANDATE

a) Reaching out to very young adolescents, before gender roles are cemented, to foster more
equitable norms through games, reflection, and dialogue, and engagement with their caregivers
and communities
b) Supporting shifts in harmful gender norms that drive GBV and exclusion
c) Preventing and responding to GBV, including emotional, physical and sexual violence, child
marriage, female genital cutting and other forms GBV in development and humanitarian contexts
d) Addressing homophobia. Trans-phobia, and intolerance for gender non-conformity
e) Promoting and nurturing positive expressions of masculinity.
f) Build self-esteem and agency in youth
g) To enforce freedoms and power
h) Instill problem solving mechanisms
i) Helping young people to address social ridicule and stigmatization.

With your accountability partner, discuss the mandate of the organisations above critiquing
their efforts at initiating gender equity.

2
7

Major themes and their application to student development and life skills
  There is need to in cooperate gender equity
2 into the mainstream tertiary curriculum.
8 module needs to address the social ridicule and
 The Student Development and Life Skills
stigmatization of those that fail to live up to societal ideals of masculinity.
 The lectures should focus on changing boys’ gender attitudes.
 Emphasis of the lectures should be on transforming existing gender norms through taking
a socioecological approach that targets not only individual boys but also peers, parents,
and schools and mobilizes entire communities
 There is a need to unpack parenting attributes that shape gender attitudes of adolescents.
 Adopting different media and practical approaches that promote gender equity.
 Addressing gender socialization by working with adolescent boys and girls from a tender
age.
 There is need to in cooperate gender issues in the secondary school and tertiary curriculum
so that gender issues are tackled at the grassroots.
 The SDLS Curriculum should address gender socialization by working with adolescent
boys to empower them to build their self-esteem through healthy activities other than
taking advantage of women as a way of improving their trajectories.
 Addressing gender socialization and masculinity norms among adolescents will improve
their own health and their trajectories into adulthood.
 Citizens should be intentional about enforcing gender equity

8. Evaluation

Although gender norms vary by country, cultural and historical contexts, the gender inequity patterns
reveal an underlying patriarchal system in most countries. The tendency of parents to pass on cultural
norms they were exposed to as they grew up is evident. There is need for social construction of gender
equality in most social and academic settings. Evolving political and economic systems ought to realign
their attitudes towards both males and females. Efforts to adjust gender norms toward greater equality
can empower both sexes to attain self-actualisation and could be a key turning points in most adolescents'
lives.

References
2
8
Kato-Wallace J, Barker G, Sharafi L, et al. Adolescent boys and young men: Engaging them as
supporters of gender equality and health and understanding their vulnerabilities [Internet]. Washington,
D.C.; 2016. Available at: [Link] -Young-
[Link]. Accessed July 28, 2023.
Dick B, Ferguson BJ. Health for the world’s adolescents:
2 A second chance in the second decade. J
Adolesc Health 2015; 56:3e6. 9

Dixon-Muller R. How young is too young? Comparative Perspectives on adolescent sexual, Marital, and
reproductive transition. Stud Fam Plann 2008; 39:247e62.

Dworkin SL, Treves-Kagan S, Lippman SA. Gender-transformative interventions to reduce HIV risks
and violence with heterosexually-active men: A review of the global evidence. AIDS Behav
2013:2845e63. [17] Ricardo C, Eads M, Barker G. Engaging boys and young men in the prevention of
sexual violence: A systematic and global review of evaluated interventions.

Fatusi AO, Hindin MJ. Adolescents and youth in developing countries: Health and development issues in
context. J Adolesc 2010; 33:499e508.

Hindin MJ, Fatusi AO. Adolescent sexual and reproductive health in developing countries: An overview
of trends and interventions. Int Perspect Sex Reprod Health 2009; 35:58e62.

Jewkes R, Fulu E, Roselli T, Garcia-Moreno C. Prevalence of and factors associated with non-partner
rape perpetration: Findings from the UN multi-country cross-sectional study on men and violence in Asia
and the Pacific.

Kågesten A, Gibbs S, Blum RW, et al. Understanding factors that shape gender attitudes in early
adolescence globally: A Mixed-Methods systematic review. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0157805.

Lancet 2015;385: 1580e9. [19] Achyut P, Bhatla N, Khandekar S, et al. Building support for gender
equality among young adolescents in school: Findings from Mumbai, India [Internet]. New Delhi:
ICRW; 2011. Available at: [Link]
GEMS_Building_Support_for_Gender_Equality_Adolescents.pdf.

Lancet Glob Heal 2013; 1:e208e18. [10] Currie C, Zanotti C, Morgan A, et al., eds. Social determinants
of health and well-being among young people. Health behaviour in school-aged children (HBSC) study:
International report from the 2009/2010 survey. Copenhagen, WHO Regional Office for Europe, 2012
(Health Policy for Children and Adolescents, No.

McCarthy K, BradyM, Hallman K, et al. Investing when it counts: Reviewing the evidence and charting a
course of research and action for very young adolescents. New York: Population Council; 2016.
Available at: [Link] .[Link]/uploads/pdfs/2016PGY_InvestingWhenItCounts.pdf. Accessed
September 3, 2017.

2
OHCHR Gender Stereotypes Journal of Adolescent Health, Volume 71, Issue 5, 2022, pp. 646-647
9
Ronald Inglehart, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan
Washington, D.C.; 2016. Available at: [Link]
3
0
Boys-and -[Link]. Accessed September 3, 2017.

Yousaf O, Grunfeld EA, Hunter MS. A systematic review of the factors associated with delays in
medical and psychological help-seeking among men. Health Psychol Rev 2015; 9:264e76.

UNIT 3

RELATIONSHIPS

AUTHORED BY MRS PARADZA FUNGAI

1 .INTRODUCTION

Relationships are the foundation of personality and are important for a person's well-being. They play a
significant and active role in your life. These connections can range from being close and personal to
being challenging and distant. Whatever the relationship's nature, a variety of relationships contribute to
the social support system that is necessary for your physical and mental health.

2. Definition
A relationship is described as an ongoing partnership between two people (Reis, 2001). A consistent
pattern of interaction between at least two "persons" (Asendorpf & Banes, 2000). Relationships can be
romantic or sexual in nature, by blood, through marriage, adoption, or other means. It can involve more
than two people and be between individuals of any race, gender, or gender non-conformity. Relationships
between romantic partners are characterized as passionate, affectionate, and intimate interactions that
usually entail some level of commitment (Reis, 2004).

AREAS OF GROWTH

This unit encapsulates the following aspects of the student growth and development

 Good communication skills

 Self confidence
 Active listening
 Humility 3
 Problem solving flexibility 0

 Time management
 Accept criticism
 Mutual respect
  Anger management 3
 Assertiveness 1

 Negotiation and compromise

 Trust

4. OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, the learners will be able to:

 Discuss an understanding of teenage relationships, including the acceptable and unacceptable

expressions of attractions,
 Describe their methods for expressing attraction, love, and devotion.
 Find ways to take on more responsibility in relationships;
 Maintain their relationships
 Make choices when it comes to relationships
 Make decisions when it comes to toxic relationships.

5. OUTCOMES OF LEARNING

 Students who can network and keep relationships strong

 Students who know how to use ICT platforms to network and build relationships
 Students who are able communicate their feelings in any type of relationship.
 Students who can leave toxic relationships.
 Students with ability establish and maintain solid relationships.

6. FIVE REASONS WHY RELATIONSHIPS ARE IMPORTANT:

Because we are social creatures, humans’ relationships are essential for our survival and well-being. As a
result, we must be deliberate in creating and maintaining healthy relationships. Here are five
justifications for the significance of relationships.

 Emotional and Mental Health: In trying times, relationships give us emotional stability and
support. They can aid in lowering anxiety, depression, and stress. According to one study,
those who had close social ties had a 50% lower risk of dying from any cause than those who
did not. Reach out to a dependable friend or member of your family if you are having
problems with your mental or emotional health. Numerous hotlines and online resources are
available if you don't have anyone you feel comfortable talking to in your life. (Gottman
2004).
3
 Reduce stress: Our bodies release cortisol1 when we are stressed. Physical health issues like
high blood pressure and a weakened immune system may result from the release of cortisol.
Relationship expert Shelly Gable (2008) discovered that people with strong social support
networks experience lower cortisol release in response to stressful circumstances. Make time
 for your favourite hobbies and leisure pursuits
3 to reduce stress in your life. Spend time with
2
loved ones and friends, or sign up for a team or club. If you don't have anyone in your life
with whom you feel comfortable talking, there are many hotlines and online resources
available (Gottman 2004).
 Connection and Belonging: We all need to feel a sense of belonging and connection to
others. We feel a sense of connection and belonging when we are in relationships. According
to one study, social isolation is just as unhealthy for us as smoking 15 cigarettes a day (Holt-
Lunstad, 2015). If you're feeling lonely, talk to your family and friends or join a group or any
club. There are a lot of online communities where you can meet people who have similar
interests to yours.
 Happiness: Frederickson (2004) states that, a relationship expert, discovered that happiness
is correlated with having close social connections. People with strong social ties were twice
as likely to be extremely satisfied, according to one study (Holt-Lunstad, Smith, & Layton,
2010). Make an effort to connect with others by spending time with friends and family and
engaging in enjoyable activities together.
 Fulfilment: Strong relationships can also contribute to a more fulfilling life. According to
studies, those who are in close relationships are more likely to experience a sense of purpose
and meaning in their lives (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2010). Put your attention toward forming
enduring connections and relationships with others if you want more fulfilment in life.

7. TYPES RELATIONSHIPS

To be in a relationship doesn't always mean there is physical intimacy, emotional attachment,

and/or commitment involved. People enter into a wide variety of relationships, each with their
own special traits. The four main types of relationships—family relationships, romantic
relationships, friendships, and acquaintanceships—are generally recognized, despite the fact that
there are many other kinds of relationships, (Donald 2022)

 Acquaintances: These are the individuals you don’t know but frequently cross paths with. They
might be the grocery store cashier or the student sitting next to you in the art class. You can gain
from interacting with these people even though you don't know them. Studies have shown that
even brief interactions with friends can lift our spirits and increase our self-worth.
 Friends: These are people we are familiar with and like. We enjoy spending time together and
have similar interests. Our mental and emotional health depends on our relationships with others.
According to studies, having friends can uplift our spirits, reduce stress, and strengthen our sense
3
of identity. These connections can lead to a2lot of fulfilment, but they also have drawbacks.
Building trust and understanding with your partner requires open and honest communication.
 Family: Blood relatives or spouses are referred
3 to as family members. Even though we don't
always get along, our family members are 3still a significant part of our lives. Our family
connections can give us a sense of community, support, and love.
 Romantic Relationships: Relationships that are marked by feelings of love and attraction for the
other party are considered romantic. While the characteristics of romantic love can vary, they
frequently include infatuation, intimacy, and commitment. There are many different ways that
experts have come up with to describe how people experience and express love. For instance, the
three primary elements of love, according to psychologist Robert Sternberg (2022), are passion,
intimacy, and commitment. He explains that romantic love combines passion and intimacy.
Romantic relationships, he continued, "tend to change over time." According to Sternberg
(2022), people typically feel more passionate at the beginning of a relationship. The brain
releases certain neurotransmitters (dopamine, oxytocin, and serotonin) during this first phase of
infatuation that make people feel euphoric and happy. These emotions begin to wane in intensity
over time. As a relationship develops, there are higher levels of understanding and feelings of
commitment, emotional intimacy, and trust (S Reis, 2001).
 Workplace Relationships: These are the connections we make with people we work with.
Depending on the person, these relationships might be harmful or beneficial. However,
interacting with your co-workers can still be beneficial to you even if you don't get along with
everyone at work. Workplace relationships have been shown in studies to boost happiness and
job satisfaction (Reis, 2001).
 Virtual Relationships: Online relationships are referred to as virtual relationships. These
connections can be made with people we know in person or with strangers. We can feel
connected and receive social support from virtual relationships.
 Platonic relationship: Relationships without sex or romance are referred to as platonic
relationships. They are a type of friendship. Closeness, Fondness, Understanding, Respect, Care,
Support, Honesty, and Acceptance are frequently present in these relationships. Platonic
friendships can involve same-sex or opposite-sex relationships and can take place in a variety of
contexts. You might develop a platonic friendship with a classmate or coworker, or you might
meet someone in a different environment like a club, an activity you participate in, or a volunteer
group you belong to. Your health and well-being can be greatly improved by the social support
that can be provided by this kind of relationship. Sometimes platonic relationships can change
over time and shift into a romantic or sexual relationship (Sternberg, 2022).
 Co-dependent Relationships: Relationships that are unbalanced or dysfunctional and in which
one partner is emotionally, physically, or mentally dependent on the other are known as co-
3
dependent relationships. Additionally, it is typical
3
for both partners to be dependent on one
another. Both parties can alternate between playing the caretaker and the person being cared for.
Relationships of all kinds, such as those between romantic partners, parents and children, friends,
relatives, and even co-workers, can be impacted by co-dependency (Reis, 2001).
Characteristics of a co-dependent relationship include
3
4 as a taker
 Acting as a giver while the other person acts
 Going to great lengths to avoid conflict with the other person
 Feeling like you have to ask permission to do things
 Having to save or rescue the other person from their own actions
 Doing things to make someone happy, even if they make you uncomfortable
 Feeling like you don't know who you are in the relationship
 Elevating the other person even if they've done nothing to earn your goodwill and admiration
 Casual Relationships: In casual relationships, there are frequently no expectations of monogamy
or commitment and there may be sex involved. One-night stands, booty calls, "sex" buddies, and
friends with benefits are examples of casual relationships, according to the authors of a study that
was published in the Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality. Casual relationships can have a
number of sex-positive advantages as long as they are characterized by communication and
consent. Without the emotional commitment and energy commitment of a more committed
relationship, they can satiate the need for sex, intimacy, connection, and companionship. Younger
adults are more likely to be in casual relationships, though anyone can have this kind of
relationship. Communication and consent are essential (Reis, 2001).
 Open Relationships: An open relationship is a kind of consensually non-monogamy in which
one or more partners engage in sexual activity with other people or have romantic relationships
with other people (Reis, 2001). In an open relationship, both parties agree to have sex with other
people, though there may be some restrictions or conditions. Any kind of romantic partnership,
including dating, marriage, and casual relationships, can involve open relationships. Nevertheless,
research indicates that between 21% and 22% of adults will engage in an open relationship at
some point in their lives. In comparison to women, men are said to have more open relationships.
These connections can have advantages like increased sexual freedom and drawbacks like
jealousy and emotional anguish. Although the main issue is emotional and frequently physical
they mutually consent to intimacy with others outside of the relationship because of the
connection between the two people in the relationship (Reis, 2001).
 Toxic Relationships: (Reis, (2001). states that a toxic relationship is any type of interpersonal
relationship where your emotional, physical, or psychological well-being is undermined or
threatened in some way. You frequently walk away from such relationships feeling embarrassed,
misunderstood, unsupported, or ashamed. Any kind of relationship, whether it be a friendship, a
family relationship, a romantic relationship, or a professional relationship, can be toxic. Your
health can suffer greatly as a result of toxic relationships. Relationships that are toxic can be
3
stressful, dangerous, or even abusive. Work on
4
setting up clear boundaries to protect yourself if
you are in a toxic relationship with someone in your life. If the relationship is hurting you, you
may want to end it (Reis, 2001).
Toxic relationships are characterized by: (Reis, 2001)
  A lack of support 3
 Blaming 5

 Competitiveness
 Controlling behaviours
 Disrespect
 Dishonesty
 Gas lighting
 Hostility
 Jealousy
 Passive-aggressive behaviours
 Poor communication
 Stress

8. BUILDING RELATIONSHIPS

ADOPTED FROM: [Link]

There are numerous things you can do to build strong, healthy relationships.

Here are a few suggestions:

 Be present: Be fully present and involved in the conversation when you are with someone. This
entails putting your cell phone away, making eye contact, and paying attention
 Communicate openly and honestly: Any relationship benefits from clear communication.
Honest and open communication promotes mutual
3 respect and understanding.
5
 Show appreciation: Take the time to express your gratitude to the people in your life. Let them
know, in words or deeds, how much they mean to you.
 Make time for one another: In our hectic lives,
3 it's simple to let relationships slide. You must
6 keep them healthy. Set aside time each week to
make time for your relationships if you want to
call or Facetime with family members. Arrange regular date nights or coffee dates with friends.
 Be encouraging: Life presents challenges and difficulties to all of us. Be there for your loved
ones when they are going through a challenging time. Offer your assistance and comprehension.
Whatever kind of relationship you have, it's critical to put time and effort into strengthening it.

9. BUILDING PROFESSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS

 Execution: Execution is the act of carrying out or completing a task successfully while utilizing
knowledge, as opposed to merely possessing it. Performance generally gets better with
experience.
 Collaboration: Is all about working together in the workplace. To accomplish the objectives of
the team entails individual contributors, cooperating with one another, their managers, or their
supervisors. To produce better results and have a bigger impact, collaboration makes use of a
variety of skill sets, resources, expertise, and perspectives. Collaboration can encourage
innovation and creativity, as well as more informed and thoughtful decision-making.
 Problem solving: Problem solving is to effectively handle challenging circumstances and come
up with solutions. Candidates who are excellent at solving problems combine analytical and
creative thinking. They are confident enough to3 handle challenges at work and are at ease making
decisions. 6

 Communication: Communication is to transfer information from one place to another. In a

relationship, communication enables you to express to the other person your feelings and needs.
 Meeting your needs through communication 3also keeps you connected to the people in your
relationship. 7

 Trust: Honesty and integrity are necessary for trust. You don't keep things hidden from one
another. You don't worry about them pursuing other people while you're apart. However, trust
extends beyond having faith in their integrity and honesty.

HEALTH RELATIONSHIPS

Adopted from Gary Chapman (2011)

Strategies to build health relationships

 Showing appreciation and gratitude

 Communicating openly and honestly
 Being affectionate and showing that you care
 Mutual respect
 Actively listening
 Showing interest in each other
 Being supportive and encouraging
 Feeling empathy for each other
 Spending time together
3
 Having healthy boundaries 7
 Being trustworthy

10. HOW TO LEAVE A TOXIC RELATIONSHIP 12 TIPS BY (REIS, 2001)

  Decide to leave: The most crucial action in ending
3 a toxic relationship is making the decision to
8 Decide to end the relationship and believe that
do so, even though it may seem straightforward.
you deserve better than what is happening. Your specific plan for leaving will differ depending on
your situation, including whether you live with a partner, have children with your toxic soon-to-
be ex, or must continue working with the toxic soon-to-be ex friend. But the first step in ending
any toxic relationship is deciding that enough is enough and that it's time to look for an
alternative.
 Practice forgiveness: You must realize that if you don't forgive, forgetting will be more difficult.
Life is too short to carry the burden of the past, which still exists today. It would be beneficial if
you made the decision to be present for yourself, which requires that you let the past go. If you
want to fully move on from a toxic relationship, you should forgive the other person.

RELATED READING: HOW TO PRACTICE FORGIVENESS IN A RELATIONSHIP

 Seek help: It's time to look for assistance and resources to implement your plan once you've
made the decision to leave. Contact your friends and family so they can offer their support and
possibly any financial assistance you might require. Working with a therapist as you leave could
also be beneficial. If you don't have access to a therapist, ask your employer if they have a
psychologist who can help you. Investigate whether there are any local or governmental services
available if you require assistance with housing, transportation, or other daily necessities. Above
all, make sure you have a network of supporters. People who are toxic like to cut off their victims'
support systems.
 Accept that leaving will hurt: Even though you're prepared to end the unhealthy relationship,
doing so will still be painful. Accept that reality and give yourself permission to experience the
pain and sadness. A toxic partner, friend, or even family member can frequently take over as the
midpoint of someone's life. So, there is no doubt that ending the relationship will hurt. Although
taking this step is likely to hurt, even if it does so temporarily, give yourself credit for being
willing and able to act in your best interests.
 Let it out: Establish a space where you can express yourself without fear. This can be done
through writing a blog, creating art, or speaking with a dependable friend or expert. All the
different emotions you will undoubtedly be experiencing, anger, sorrow, grief, elation, hope, and
despair should be allowed to flow freely. Crying and laughing are both acceptable emotions. Your
recovery time will take longer if you suppress or deny your emotions. Exercise, especially
vigorous exercise like punching a punching bag or dancing, can also be a great stress reliever.
This is one of the best advice on how to end a toxic relationship and survive the aftermath.
3
 Know that you deserve better: When you are 8 not receiving the same amount of love in return,
sometimes loving someone is not enough. It's comparable to fixing a rusted-out old car. You can
work as hard as you want, but it will never be the same again. Your time spent in a relationship
 that doesn't make you happy keeps you from dating
3 the right person who genuinely respects and
loves you. 9

 Let go of the moments: Even toxic relationships can have positive aspects. You must understand
that clinging to happy memories will not benefit you or your mental health. Recognize that,
despite how wonderful the memories may seem to you now, the relationship ended because there
was something fundamentally wrong with it.
 Think of the benefits: Consider the benefits of avoiding the toxic person despite how silly it may
sound. What can you do that you couldn't do before or that they would make you feel bad about
doing? It can be as silly as eating anchovies on your pizza or sleeping on your side, or as serious
as traveling abroad or going out with friends. Make a list of everything you will be able to do,
everything you won't have to do or handle any longer, and all the ways ending this toxic
relationship will improve your life. Numerous times, read it. Even better, you can post-it notes
with reminders all over or mail yourself postcards as a reminder.
 Give yourself time to heal: You will need time to heal, even if you are the one who decides to
end a toxic relationship. Allow yourself enough time to recover from the pain of the breakup and
the harm the toxic relationship caused. If you can, take some time off from work, even if it's just
for a couple of days. It will be as difficult as you make it to move past a toxic relationship. Give
yourself permission to indulge in foods that sound good, get the rest you require, and treat
yourself well. Time spent with friends, cuddling a cherished pet, exercising, getting outside, and
engaging in hobbies you enjoy can all be beneficial. You'll recover. Just wait for it to happen
when it does.
 Pursue self-development and self-growth: You won't be able to move past your toxic ex-
partner right away. The process is gradual and may take longer than you anticipated. You must
first make a mental and physical commitment to yourself that you will do everything it takes to
end the relationship. Spend your energy improving yourself physically and emotionally rather
than wasting time dwelling on your failed relationship. Spend your time and effort working on
yourself. Make a commitment to yourself that, going forward, you will work to achieve the
wonderful life of which you have always dreamed.
 Consider it a lesson: You won't be able to move past your toxic ex-partner right away. The
process is gradual and may take longer than you anticipated. You must first make a mental and
physical commitment to yourself that you will do everything it takes to end the relationship.
Spend your energy improving yourself physically and emotionally rather than wasting time
dwelling on your failed relationship. Spend your time and effort working on yourself. Make a
commitment to yourself that, going forward, you will work to achieve the wonderful life of which
3
you have always dreamed. 9
 Move on: When trying to end toxic relationships, many people experience guilt and blame
themselves for actions they did not take. It's important for you to realize that the other person
brought out the worst in you. Instead of seeing this as a mistake, think of it as a teaching moment.
 Knowing the lessons you took away from your4toxic relationship would be best. Recognize that it
0
has changed you, but that change is for the better.

11. RELATIONSHIP COUNSELLING

In relationship counselling, one or more qualified counsellors work with individuals, couples,
families, and groups to strengthen their bonds. Clients can develop healthier ways of interacting with
their partners, resolve conflict, and enhance their communication skills in therapy (Bernard, 2021).

Many people think that relationship counselling should only be sought when a divorce or separation
is imminent. But in many cases, that comes too late. It is best to recognize issues as soon as possible
and seek therapy. (Bernard 2021). Relationship counselling should start as soon as the issues interfere
with your daily life. Counsellors can assist you in improving your family's happiness, developing
strong interpersonal skills, and improving your communication skills. Couples who live together,
even those in non-monogamy, and individuals in other relationships can all benefit from relationship
therapy. Siblings who are dealing with family issues or even business partners may find it helpful.

If your relationship demonstrates these symptoms, relationship counsellors may need to be consulted.

 You have trouble expressing your feelings to one another

 You have one or more unsolvable disagreement

 There is withdrawal, criticism, or contempt in your interactions

 A stressful event has shaken your daily life

 You have trouble making decisions together

 You have experienced infidelity, addiction, or abuse

12. CONCLUSION

Relationships cover a wide range of people including work colleagues‚ tutors‚ friends‚ family‚ sexual
relationships‚ living together and marriage. Good relationships can be very supportive and enhance our
lives. However most relationships go through difficult patches and need the willingness to compromise
(Kendra Cherry2021). Relationship difficulties can produce or stir up feelings that may be from the past
i.e. hurt and anger.

4
0

REFERENCES

[Link]
Journal of Relationships Research 4
1
Journal of Relationships Research
[Link]
Additional services for Journal of Relationships Research:
Email alerts: Click here
Subscriptions: Click here
Commercial reprints: Click here
Terms of use : Click here
The Construct of Relationship Quality
Saif R. Farooqi Journal of Relationships Research / Volume 5 / January 2014 / e2
DOI: 10.1017/jrr.2014.2, Published online: 03 April 2014
Link to this article: [Link]
How to cite this article:
Saif R. Farooqi (2014). The Construct of Relationship Quality . Journal of Relationships Research, 5, e2
doi:10.1017/jrr.2014.2
Request Permissions : Click here
Downloaded from [Link] IP address: [Link] on 04 Apr 2014

Journal of Relationships Research

[Link]
Additional services for Journal of Relationships Research:
Email alerts: Click here
Subscriptions: Click here
Commercial reprints: Click here
Terms of use : Click here
The Construct of Relationship Quality
Saif R. Farooqi
Journal of Relationships Research / Volume 5 / January 2014 / e2
DOI: 10.1017/jrr.2014.2, Published online: 03 April 2014
Link to this article: [Link]
How to cite this article:
Saif R. Farooqi (2014). The Construct of Relationship Quality . Journal of Relationships Research, 5, e2
doi:10.1017/jrr.2014.2
Request Permissions : Click here 4
1
Downloaded from [Link] IP address: [Link] on 04 Apr 2014

Asendorpf, J.B., & Banse, R. (2000). Psychology of relationships. Berlin: Springer

Bernard A (2021) Relationship Counselling: What4 You Need to Know. BMC Public Health.
Massachusetts. 2

Fredrickson, B. L (1993) Social Withdrawal, inhibition, and Shyness in Childhood, Psychology Press

Fredrickson, B. L. (2004). Gratitude, like other positive emotions, broadens and builds. New York:
Oxford University Press.

Gottman J (2004) What Am I Feeling? Talaris Research Institute

[Link]

Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., & Layton, J. B. (2010). Social Relationships and Mortality Risk. America.

Gable S, (2008). Beyond reciprocity: gratitude and relationships in everyday life. Cambridge University
Press

Journal of personality and social psychology 89 (3), 32 Gable. S, (2020) Giving up and giving in: the
costs and benefits of daily sacrifice in intimate relationships

Kendra Cherry, [Link]

(Leibowitz and Parker J.G (2018) Loneliness in childhood. New York Cambridge University Press.

Reis, H.T. (2001). Relationship experiences and emotional wellbeing. New York: Oxford University
Press.

Robert Sternberg 2020 Very well. New York: Cambridge University Press.
[Link]
Robert Sternberg (2022) Sternberg's Triangular Theory and the 8 Types of Love.

[Link]

4
2
 4
3

UNIT 4

COMMUNICATION

AUTHORED BY MS MUNESI VIOLA

INTRODUCTION

Communication is a distinct component of success in all spheres of life. It becomes a cataract in vast
areas such as, business, socially, intellectually, spiritually, physically, all life setups; the list becomes
endless. It comes in different forms such as; agreements, discussions, wars, settlements, successes,
failures, relationships are shaped by communication. It requests for understanding from both ends. The
write-up will define communication, concept, disadvantages, and advantages and try to look into its
importance in the organisational set up.

AREAS OF GROWTH

This unit serves to give students an understanding of communication as preparation for the future world
of employment and entrepreneurship. Students will be exposed to situations, programmes and activities
which stimulate the following:

 Communication skills
 Setting goals
 Adaptability
 Productivity
 Collaboration
 Addressing interpersonal conflicts.
 Presenting articulate arguments.
4
 Stress management 3

 Integrity
 Conflict resolution
 Teamwork skills
  Leadership 4
 Emotional intelligence 4

 Patience
 Time management
 Empathy
 Creative skills
 Negotiation skills
 Tactfulness.
 Customer service skills, and more.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit students should be able to:

 Define and explain the importance of communication.

 Interpret communication process and theories.
 Use communication effectively.
 Outline merits and demerits of communication.
 Distinguish between good and bad communication strategies.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Students will be able to:

 Acquire and apply knowledge.

 Communicate effectively.
 Develop knowledge, skills and judgement.
 Understand and evaluate key theoretical approaches.
 Find, use and evaluate primary academic writing.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines communication as the act or process of using words, sounds,
signs or behaviours to express or exchange information or to express your ideas, thoughts, and feelings,
among others; to someone else.

Ntara (2003; 2022) describes communication as the actionable transfer of information from one person,
group, or place to another by writing, speaking, or suing a medium that provides a means of
understanding. Every communication consists of a minimum of one sender, a receiver, and a message.
4
4
Thus, communication becomes transfer of information whilst making both parties understand the
message.

Task 1
1. What do you understand by communication and
4 identify 4 methods of communication used
across the board? 5

CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION

Vedantu (2022) indicates that ‘communication’ is derived from the Latin “ Communis”, which means
common sense and sharing the same ideas. The transmission and interaction of information comes in the
form of facts, ideas, opinions feelings and attitudes. Essential planning, staffing, supervision and
management become impossible without effective communication. Communication is a two-way process
which involves transferring of information from one person/group to the other, thus; involving a sender
and receiver. It makes people’s work easier, smoother and comes in different modes that includes;
emails, chats, Whatsapp, Skype, telephones, among others.

Team Cultural Formulation Interview (CFI) alludes that communication involves transmitting non-verbal
and verbal information. The channel includes a sender, medium of communication and receiver. The
process involves; the message, language used, medium used, noise, the environment and the feedback.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Team CFI (2022) indicates that there is verbal (oral and read) and non-verbal (in signs, symbols, colors,
touches, body and facial features). Verbal has an urge over the non-verbal since there is immediate
understanding and response attached to it. Use of body language and facial expressions to convey
information to others, intentional or non-intentional becomes insignificant. In support of the above,
Shukla (2022) also comes up with two modes of communication; formal and non-formal, highlighting
that in organizational setups, formal communication takes place through channels between managers and
employees of the class, high and low and vice-versa. Non formal communication also known as the vine
spreads rapidly in organizations. Shukla (2022) denotes that the styles of communication vary by
individuals/organizations where numerous channels or modes can be used to express messages.
Communication is also grouped as; verbal, non-verbal, written and visual.
Team CFI (2022) tries to explain the types of communication as follows:
Verbal Communication
Verbal communication is face-to-face or through the telephone. It can be formal in the form of
organizational meetings or informal as charts with friends on the streets. Shukla (2022) sees verbal
communication as involving conversations, thus; face-to-face, telephones, Skype among others. In
organizations it is used for terminating employees’ contract, express boldness, trainings, self-revelation
to support sharing, speaking peacefully despite situations just to mention a few.
Non-verbal communication 4
5

This is when one uses body language such as; eye contact and movement, facial expressions, signing,
posture, touch and hand movements. These are culture inclined.
Written communication 4
6
Messages are physical type on paper or an online medium like the email as messages, memo and reports
among others. Interaction is in written form; thus, reports, bulletins, memos, job descriptions, employee
descriptions, employee manuals and electronic mail; among others.
Visual Communication
There is use of images to pass messages to recipients. For effectiveness, the right image must reflect the
attention of its intended audience. The model is attached to use of visual aids; that is; graphs, charts,
maps, posters, packaging design, books, and screen-based media, all in the visual aids family. The body
gestures, facial expressions, and eye contacts of person can also assist in visual communication by
assigning a message. Training and educational videos are an enormous part of the effective visual
communication; that is; trade shows, conferences, websites, social media posts etc.
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Communication is an ongoing process that mainly involves three components namely. Sender, message
and recipient. The components involved are described below:

1. Sender:

The sender or contact generates the message and transmits it to the recipient as the source and the first
contact.

2. Message:

It is an idea, knowledge, opinion, truth, feeling, etc. produced by the sender and intended for reference.

3. Encoding:

The message produced by the sender is encrypted in a symbolic way such as words, pictures and touches
pre-transfer.

4. The media:

This is how the coded message is conveyed. The message can be conveyed orally, in writing or through a
gadget.

5. Recording:

The process of modifying the signals sent by the sender after recording the message it is received by the
recipient.

6. Recipient:

This is the last person in the chain. Effectiveness of 4the communication process is when the recipient
6 on the message.
receives the message and understands it correctly and acts

7. Answer:
Once the recipient confirms to the sender that you
4 received the message and understood it, the
communication process is complete. 7

8. Noise:

This refers to any restrictions caused by the sender, message or recipient during the communication
process. For example, incorrect telephone connection, incorrect coding, incorrect recording, careless
recipient, incorrect understanding of message due to discrimination or inappropriate touch, etc. Overleaf
is a diagram of the communication system:
The Communication process

Adopted from Rawat (2022)

Rawat (2022) comes up with 5 stages in the process of communication as; sender, transmission, noise,
receiver and feedback.
 Sender
Communication starts with the sender, who is the initiator of the message. After generating an idea, the
sender encodes it in a way that can be comprehended by the receiver. Encoding refers to the process by
which the sender translates his thoughts into a series of verbal and non-verbal actions that he feels will
communicate the message to the intended receiver, that is, translating the thought into any language.
 Transmission
Information send is transmitted over a channel through which the message travels to the receiver. A
channel connects the sender to the receiver. Channels of communication may be memoranda, telephone,
telegram or television. Channels are determined by the type of communication such that with
confidential information there is need for face to face or sealed letter could be more effective than a
telephone conversation.
 Noise 4
7
Noise is anything that disturbs influence on the message. Senders should choose channels that are free
from noise. Noise may occur on both sides, during transmission. Noise could be ambiguous symbols that
lead to faulty encoding, poor telephone connection, inattentive receiver, faulty decoding, prejudices
obstructing the poor understanding of a message, gesture and postures that may distort the message.
  Receiver 4
8
The receiver is the person whom the message is transmitted. In order to decode the message, the receiver
has to be ready to receive the message. Receiver should not be preoccupied with other thoughts that
might cause him to pay insufficient attention to the message. Decoding refers to the process of
translation of symbols encoded by the sender into ideas that can be understood. Communication is only
effective when sender and receiver understand what is being communicated.
 Feedback
A message generated by the receiver in response to the sender’s original message is known as feedback.
It is essential since it confirms effective encode, transmitted, decoded and understood. It helps sender
evaluation of the effectiveness of the message. Feedback also allows for noticing of behavior change.
Task 2

In groups discuss the importance of communication in organisational set ups.

Burton (2022) declares that communication skills are slightly more refined application of the concept of
communication. A good communicator will have good verbal, non-verbal and written communication
skills. To be an effective team leader or company owner there is need to be fluent in all ways of
communication.

IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION

Sumankher (2021) describes effective communication as the ability to listen attentively and to convey
information efficiently with empathy whilst portraying confidence and body language which is important
while in contact with people. Effective communication provides improvement to the soft skills and has a
positive impact on career and relationships. Importance of communication is as follows:

 Communication plays a vital role in building a strong relationships across the world
 Essential pillar for sharing ideas
 Useful when delegating responsibilities
 Ideal for management of a team
 Building up a healthy relationship,
 Planning, organizing, leading and controlling workforce.
 Give instructions to colleagues, subordinates and the clients.
 Effective communication is a successful building block of the organizational structure.
 Builds trust. 4
8
 Helps build the team as an effective unit.
 Builds understanding with your audience.
 Effective communication encourages innovation.
  Increases accountability and brings clarity in work
4 flow.
 9
Effective communication improves customer satisfaction.

Task 3

In groups come up with a list of communication barriers that that interjects smooth flow of
communication in most organisations.

COMMUNICATION BARRIERS

Communication is also infected by obstacles that hinder its processes. It is also known as the arc of
distortion which could be some error in a gadget or channel. These barriers could be:

 Lack of proper style or feedback.

 Content is not related to customer requirements.

 Failure to maintain dual communication.

 Bad weather.

 Lack of horizontal flow of ideas.

 Availability of technical coordinators.

 Semantic problems.

 Lack of leadership.

 Lack of enthusiasm.

 Lack of support from heads of institutions. Burton (2022).

Sumankher (2021) explains below barriers that create hindrance in building up communication over the
time period;

 Personal Barriers:

Communication takes place between receiver and sender. It’s a two-way process which should be
clear. In case message formation went wrong, it gives a wrong and unclear message to the
recipient. The receiver might get the wrong perspective while receiving a message. Therefore the
message should be written effortlessly.

 Systematic Barrier:

If any machine or electronic errors occur by any means or in any unforeseen situation, it may
affect the importance of communication.
POOR COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE
4
9
Communication drives workplace successes. Detriments of poor communicating may not be apparent in
the short term. Poor communication has a crippling effect on the workplace in the long term. Examples
of poor communication as follows:
  Lack of specific communication. 5
 0 messages.
Using the incorrect mediums to convey important
 Passive-aggressive communication.
 Lack of follow-through and consideration.
 Blaming and intimidating others.

FLOW OF COMMUNICATION

Most organizations adhere to the following five flows of communications:

 Downward Flow:

In this, communication flows from the higher level to lower level, i.e.
communication carried out by the head of the organization to the
subordinates like providing feedback, giving job instructions etc.

 Upward Flow:

Communication which flows to the higher level of the organization is

upward communication. Subordinates use upward flow to transfer their
grievances and performances to their seniors.

 Lateral/Horizontal Communication:

It takes place where communication happens between the same level of

the hierarchy that is communication between colleagues, managers or
between any horizontally equivalent members of the organization. It
benefits employees to perform coordination among the tasks, time-saving,
solving problems of employees of other departments or conflicts within
the department.

 Diagonal Communication:

Communication which takes place between the manager and employee of

other work departments is known as diagonal communication.

 External Communication:

Communication which takes place between the manager and external

group likes vendors, suppliers, banks, financial institutions and many
more. For example, the Managing Director would be meeting with the
bank manager to get the bank loan or some other5 financial work.
0
CONCLUSION

Without communication there is no prosperity, growth and understanding. Success in all endeavors relies
on communication. Communication is advantageous in all set ups. It is also affected by several diverse
hindrances. Proper methods and channels of communication
5 allow for smooth flow of activities and
breaks barrier boundaries. 1

REFERENCES

Burton, K. (2022) The top 15 Most Effective Communication Techniques and Strategies.
Bettermindbodysoul.

Characteristics of Communication. [Link] (2013-24).

Glassdorr team (2021) Engagement of Professional Areas of Growth. Career Advice Experts.

Ntara, C. (2003-2022) Copyright. Earn/lesson/what-is-communication.

Rawat, A. (2022) 5 main processes of Communication in Business Management Ideas.

What is communication? [Link] Commerce/Communication (opened 13/11/22).

Shukla. V/ (2022) Four types of Communication with Examples.

Sumankher, (2021) 11 Reasons Why Effective Communication is Important.

Team, CFI (2022) Communication Skills.

University of Southern Main (2022) Communication and Media Studies Department: Communicating
Learning Outcomes.

5
1
 5
2

UNIT 5

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS, HIV & AIDS AND YOUTHS AREAS OF

GROWTH

AUTHORED BY MR GOREJENA STANELY

This unit serves to give students an understanding of sexually transmitted diseases as preparation for the
future world of employment and entrepreneurship. Students will be exposed to situations, programmes
and activities which stimulate the following:

 Communication skills
 Setting goals
 Productive relationships
 Addressing interpersonal conflicts.
 Alternative ways of Stress management
 Integrity, moral and emotional intelligence
 Negotiation skills

Objectives of the Session

1. Define sexually transmitted infections

2. Discuss the different types of STIs and their classification. Outline the signs and symptoms of
STI’s List the complications of STI’s.

Discuss the prevention of STI’s and HIV and Tuberculosis

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Improved decision making in sexual relationships

 Abstinence from sexual intimacy before marriage
 5
Activism against promiscuous relationships and casual sex
2

Definition of STIs
Sexually Transmitted Diseases are infections caused by bacteria and viruses spread from one person to
another through sexual contact Sexually Transmitted
5 Infections (STIs) are diseases that are usually
transmitted from an infected person to a partner during3sexual intercourse.

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is the virus that causes AIDS. It attacks the immune system – the
body’s defense against disease. HIV is found in blood, breast milk, semen and vaginal fluids.

AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) is the name given to a group of illnesses in HIV
positive people. These are illnesses that arise when People Living with HIV are no longer able to fight
off infection because of lowered immunity.

Who is at risk of STI’s?

 All people, men and women who are sexually active Women seeking family planning services
 Youths or young adults Sex workers Long distance truck/bus drivers
 Caregivers who do not take preventive measures when caring for infected people
 Homosexuals (Lesbians and gays)
 A foetus in utero –MTCT

Why Discuss about STI’s

STI’s are common Clients may ask about changes or conditions of their sex organs
Providers can recognize clients who are at risk of STI’s and HIV infection

Types of STIs and their incubation periods

Those that cause ulcers
 Chancroid (3-14days
 Genital Herpes (2-20days
 Granuloma Inguinal
 Syphilis (stage1=1-3months, stage2=3-6months, stage3=many years)
 Lymphogranuloma venerum
 Genital warts(1-6months)

Those that cause discharges

 Gonorrhoea(1-10days)
 Trichomoniasis
 Bacterial Vaginosis
 Chlamydia(1-3weeks) 5
3
 Vaginal Candidiasis
HIV
 Mollescum Contagiosum
  Hepatitis B 5
 Pediculosis 4 Pubis

Signs and Symptoms

The different STIs present different signs and symptoms. Some of these signs and symptoms are:
Urethral Discharge Burning when passing urine
Ulcers on genitals Pain in genitals Vaginal discharge that might be offensive Vaginal or valval itches
Lower abdominal pain in women Swelling and pain in the inguinal region Baby aged less than one month
has discharging eyes

1. GONORRHOEA

 Pelvic infection Infertility

 Blindness in baby
 Sterility
 Risk of ectopic pregnancy
 Facilitates HIV transmission

 CHLAMYDIA
Severe infection of reproductive organs (PID) Facilitates HIV transmission

SYPHLIS

 Infertility skin diseases

5
 Paralysis 4

 Mental illness
 Athritis
 Stillborn
 Giving birth to 5 a blind baby
Death 5

CHANCROID

 Scarring

 Thickening of tissues

 Fistula (passages or holes between organs)

5
5
 5
6
[Link]

 Sores go away without treatment but may reappear when person is ill or stressed.
Can pass to baby
 Facilitates HIV transmission

GENITAL WARTS, HPV

 Can grow large and spread

 Can be passed to a baby

 Some types can lead to cervical cancer

[Link] B

 Can cause liver disease

 Liver cancer
5
 Can pass to baby 6

8. PUBIC LICE

 Skin irritations
  Burrows 5
7

[Link]

 Spreads all over the body

 Skin irritation

Management of STIs

Encourage young people to seek STI treatment early Encourage adolescents to bring their partners for
treatment Refer young people for treatment

Prevention of STI’s & HIV

Abstinence

 Apply to those who are not yet sexually active (The gold class in young adults) It is the only
guaranteed protection
Be mutually faithful
 Have sex with one faithful uninfected partner
 Correct and Consistent use of condoms
 Do not use contaminated equipment when performing procedures
 Engage in safer sex methods-non penetrative
 Emphasize and intensify health education on preventive measures and use of condoms

NB* Points to Remember

Emphasise abstinence

Emphasize on treatment compliance

Emphasize on use of correct and

Consistent condom use and resupply

HOW HIV MAKES YOU SICK

HIV invades and hides in CD4 cells; it uses them to make more HIV, and then destroys them.
The more HIV there is in the body, the fewer CD4 cells there are to fi ght off illnesses. A weak immune
system makes it easier for other infections to make the person sick and more difficult for them to get well
again. A person can live with HIV for a5 long time and look and feel healthy.
7
The longer HIV is in the body without the person knowing, the greater chances of that person preading
the virus or developing AIDS.
The natural History of HIV Infection 5
8
 Acute infection

 Asymptomatic infection
 AIDS Related Complex (ARC)
AIDS

Acute infection
Acute infection usually occurs within 2-6 weeks after an initial attack by HIV (window period). Fever is
the most common clinical presentation, with sore throat, night sweats, nausea, vomit, diarrhoea, rash,
arthralgia, lymphadenopathy and neurological symptoms.

Asymptomatic infection
This stage generally lasting 6-8 years, depending on the viral load, types of virus strain, individual
immunity, nutritional conditions, life styles and other factors.

ARC
Fever, night sweats or diarrhoea for at least one month; and weight loss >10% body weight.
Memory impairment, apathy, character disorder, headache, seizures and dementia.
Persistent generalized lymph glands

AIDS

The immune system gives in and person suffers from some conditions like Thrush
Herpes simplex viruses Tuberculosis(TB) Kaposis sarcoma Severe weight loss

5
8
When am I likely to 5 infect or be infected?
9

MODE OF HIV TRANSMISSION

 Through unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person.

 Mother-to-Child Transmission - From an HIV infected mother to the unborn baby during
pregnancy, labour and delivery, and breastfeeding.
 By use of infected needles, razor blades and other skin-piercing instruments which are not
cleaned properly or sterilised.
 Through a blood transfusion from infected blood. However in Zimbabwe blood is screened for
HIV and the risk is minimal.

Myths of Transmission

HIV cannot be transmitted through the following acts:

 Kissing and hugging

 Sharing cutlery
 Sharing the same toilet and baths
 Sitting together
 Working together
 Living in the same house
 Shaking hands 5
9
 Talking, sneezing or coughing
 Mosquito and other insect bites
Types Of 6 HIV Testing
Zimbabwe uses two 0 main approaches
1 Client initiated approach (VCT).

2 Provider initiated (offered routinely) to

 patients with HIV related diseases such as (TB) –STI

 General diagnostic purposes, both for in and out patients.
 Women and their partners and children attending FCH clinics including ANC.
 Mandatory HIV testing is not effective for public health intervention. It is only used in special
circumstances like rape cases.

TRUE OR FALSE?
• You won’t get an STI if you only have oral sex.
• Only people who have lots of sex partners get STIs.
• You can get an STI from a toilet seat.
• Many STIs can be transmitted to babies during pregnancy or birth.
• You can have an STI even if you do not have any signs or symptoms.
• Some signs of STIs on or around the genitals are unusual sores or lumps, itching, pain, pain when
urinating
bad smells, and/or an unusual discharge.
• Women have more noticeable signs and symptoms of STIs than men.
• STIs caused by viruses cannot be cured.
• Passing urine after sex protects you from STIs.
• If you have an STI, you are at greater risk of getting HIV and of spreading HIV to your partners.
• STIs cannot lead to cancer.
• STIs that are not treated can result in problems getting pregnant.

Barriers into HTC and the Young

 Lack of perceived benefit by society, communities and families, leading to

 Negative attitude towards testing children
 Reluctance of families to have their children tested
 Inadequate access to services
 Inadequate child & adolescent counselors
 Inadequate HTC child/youth-friendly services 6
0
 Issues of consent by the parents/guardian
 Limited resources
 Inadequate follow up services
  Stigma and6 discrimination
1

Opportunistic Infections/Conditions Associated with HIV and AIDS

Tuberculosis

 Tuberculosis is an opportunistic infection among people living with HIV and AIDS and is a
major cause of death in this group.
Gullian Bar’s Syndrome
 This is paralysis of both lower limbs as a nervous disorder. The condition starts from feet and
spreads upwards, resulting on the individual patient being unable to walk and finally completely
paralysed.
Diarrhoea –
 Diarrhoea that is chronic and persistent or intermittent. This condition results in loss of 10% or
more of total body weight.
Karposi Sarcoma
 This is a cancer of the skin. It produces nodules and progresses fast and has no specific
treatment.
Herpes Zoster
 This is a nervous disorder. The same virus that causes chicken pox is the one that causes herpes
zoster. The virus attacks a nerve and produces very painful shingles which may reoccur after
healing
Cryptococcal Meningitis
 This is a viral type of meningitis that usually infects the brain structures of an HIV positive
person. It presents with severe headaches, neck stiffness and confusion and in severe cases with
convulsions and unconsciousness.

Pneumonias

 Including Pneumosist Carini Pneumonia (PCP) – This is a lung infection and is usually fatal in
People living with HIV.
Thrush
 This can be vaginal or oral thrush and is caused by fungal infection called candida abicans. It
causes painful white patches inside the mouth and throat or in women it causes mild vaginal
discharge.
6
1
OTHER PICTURES 6
2

6
2
 6
3

References

Hayes R, Watson-Jones D, Celum C, van de Wijgert J, Wasserheit J. Treatment of sexually

6
3

REFERENCES
Transmitted infections for HIV prevention: end of the
6 road or new beginning? AIDS 2010;24(suppl
4):S15-S26 4

Peterman TA, Newman, DR, Maddox L, Schmitt K, Shiver S. Extremely High Risk for HIV following a
diagnosis of syphilis, men living in Florida, 2000-2011 Pub Health Rep 2014;129:164-169.

Pathela P, Braunstein SL, Blank S, Schillinger JA. HIV incidence among men with and those without
sexually transmitted rectal infections: estimates from matching against an HIV case registry. Clin Infect
Dis 2013;57:1203-1209.

Cohen MS, Hoffman IF, Royce RA, et al. Reduction of concentration of HIV-1 in semen after treatment
of urethritis: implications for prevention of sexual transmission of HIV-1. Lancet 1997;349:1868-1873.

Schacker T, Ryncarz AJ, Goddard J, Diem K, Shaughnessy M, Corey L. Frequent recovery of HIV-1
from genital herpes simplex virus lesions in HIV-1—infected men. JAMA 1998;280:61-66.

Cohen MS, Council OD, Chen JS. Sexually transmitted infections and HIV in the era of antiretroviral
treatment and prevention: the biologic basis for epidemiologic synergy. Journal of the International
AIDS Society 2019, 22(s6)e25355.

Pathela P, Braunstein SL, Schillinger JA, Shepard C, Sweeney M, Blank S. Men who have sex with men
have a 140-fold higher risk for newly diagnosed HIV and syphilis compared with heterosexual men in
New York City. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2011;58:408-416.

Purcell DW, Johnson CH, Lansky A, et al. Estimating the population size of men who have sex with
men in the United States to obtain HIV and syphilis rates. Open AIDS J 2012;6(Suppl 1:M6)98-107.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance, 2021. Atlanta,
GA: Department of Health and Human Services; April 2023.

Florida trends and statistics. Available at:

[Link] accessed 9/2/13

Newman DR, Rahman MM, Brantley A, Peterman TA. Rates of new human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV) diagnoses after Reported sexually transmitted infection in women in Louisiana, 2000—2015:
Implications for HIV Prevention. CID. 2020;70:1115-1120.

Wald A, Link K. Risk of human immunodeficiency6 virus infection in herpes simplex virus type 2-
4 185:45-52.
seropositive persons: a meta-analysis. J Infect Dis 2002
Freeman EE, Weiss HA, Glynn JR, Cross PL, Whitworth
6 JA, Hayes RJ. Herpes simplex virus 2
5
infection increases HIV acquisition in men and women: systematic review and meta-analysis of
longitudinal studies. AIDS 2006;20:73-83.

Looker JK, Elmes JAR, Gottlieb SL, et al. Effect of HSV-2 infection on subsequent HIV acquisition: an
updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 2017;17:1303-1316.

Grosskurth H, Mosha F, Todd J, et al. Impact of improved treatment of sexually transmitted diseases on
HIV infection in rural Tanzania: randomized controlled trial. Lancet 1995;346:530-536.

Wawer MJ, Sewankambo NK, Serwadda D, et al. Control of sexually transmitted diseases for AIDS
prevention in Uganda: a randomized community trial. Lancet 1999;353:525-535.

Kamali A, Quigley M, Nakiyingi J, et al. Syndromic management of sexually-transmitted infections and

behavior change interventions on transmission of HIV-1 in rural Uganda: a community randomized trial.
Lancet 2003;361:645-652.

Gregson S, Adamson S, Papaya S, et al. Impact and process evaluation of integrated community and
clinic-based HIV-1 control: a cluster-randomised trial in eastern Zimbabwe. PLoS Medicine
2007;4:e102.

Ghys PD, Diallo MO, Ettiegne-Traore V, et al. Effect of interventions to control sexually transmitted
disease on the incidence of HIV infection in female sex workers. AIDS 2001;15:1421-1431.

Kaul R, Kimani J, Nagelkerke NJ, et al. Monthly antibiotic chemoprophylaxis and incidence of sexually
transmitted infections and HIV-1 infection in Kenyan sex workers: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA
2004;291:2555-2562.

Watson-Jones D, Weiss HA, Rusizoka M, et al. Effect of herpes simplex suppression on incidence of
HIV among women in Tanzania. N Engl J Med 2008;358:1560-1571.

Celum C, Wald A, Hughes J, et al. Effect of acyclovir on HIV-1 acquisition in herpes simplex virus 2
seropositive women and men who have sex with men: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled
trial. Lancet 2008;371:2109-2119.

Celum C, Wald A, Lingappa JR, et al. Acyclovir and transmission of HIV-1 from persons infected with
HIV-1 and HSV-2. N Engl J Med 2010;362:427-439.
6
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6
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UNIT 6
Sexual and Reproductive Health
Assess prenatal practices that either
contribute to or threaten a healthy
pregnancy;
 Fertility: pregnancy prevention
and termination Identify the various contraceptive methods
 Preventing STIs, including HIV available, as well as their advantages and
 Harmful traditional reproductive disadvantages;
health practices
 Mitigating factors against Describe the uses and limitations of
effective prevention of emergency contraception, and where to
reproductive health problems – access it;
socio-economic, cultural, Acknowledge that abortion is illegal in
contextual factors, including Zimbabwe and dangerous if performed by
services an untrained person;
 Living with HIV: Positive living, Acknowledge that it is the responsibility of
treatment as prevention both the woman and man to prevent
1. Fertility, pregnancy, prevention, unintended pregnancies, as well as ensure a
and termination
healthy pregnancy;
Learning objectives Acknowledge that responsible sex is sex that
is planned and protected in order to avoid
Key idea: There are health risks associated with
both unintended pregnancy and STIs.
pregnancy. As such, having sex must be a Prevention of STIs, including HIV
conscious decision made in advance, considering Learning objectives
the contraceptive options that best fit needs to
Key idea: The decision about which strategy
reduce risk of unintended pregnancy, as well as
to use to reduce the risk of STIs, including
barrier protection against STIs and HIV. HIV, is influenced by self-efficacy, perceived
vulnerability (risk), gender roles and
At the end of this session, students will be able
to: expectations, and peer norms.
At the end of this session, students will be able
Assess the risks and benefits of falling to:
pregnant at specific points in time and
age; Describe how peer norms as well as SRH
service provider attitudes and availability
6 affect the ability to practice risk reduction
Recognize the benefits of delaying and
7
spacing out pregnancies; strategies;

Express preference about if and when to get Explain how exclusion and discrimination
pregnant; against marginalized groups can increase
their vulnerability to STIs, including HIV;
 6Key idea: There are various socio-cultural,
Describe the various preventive, testing, and
8economic, and other contextual factors that
treatment services available, such as mitigate against the practice of safe reproductive
condoms, pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), health.
post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), and
voluntary medical male circumcision At the end of this session, students will be able
(VMMC); to:

Identify where there is safe and Recognize socio-cultural, economic, and

confidential access to these services; other contextual factors that make young
women vulnerable to unintended pregnancy
Appreciate the need for dual protection, and and act as barriers to prevention;
when to practice it;
Identify the socio-cultural, economic, and
Describe options and combinations of other contextual factors that make both
methods for ensuring dual protection; young women and men vulnerable to STIs
Identify all sources of condoms and HIV infection and act as barriers to
Construct and practice a personal plan for prevention;
health and well-being.
Critically examine cultural beliefs and
practices that contribute to poor SRH
outcomes
3. Harmful traditional Develop personal strategies for mitigating
reproductive health practices
the negative factors against safer SRH.
Learning objectives

Key idea: There are still harmful reproductive

health practices that exist in Zimbabwe, which
should be avoided to safeguard SRHR.

At the end of this session, students will be able

to:

Identify harmful sexual practices;

Identify harmful prenatal practices;

Recognize the dangers of these harmful

practices for their own health and well-
being, as well as for their partners and
unborn foetus;

Determine not to practice harmful

reproductive behaviours, and support
others not to as well.

4. Mitigating factors
against effective 6
prevention of 8
reproductive health
problems

Learning objectives
 6
9

Activity
Sexual harassment everywhere is reported to be on the increase. Prepare a presentation paper for
members of your community and sensitize them on
(i) The various forms of sexual harassment
(ii) Some causes of sexual harassment
(iii) Dealing with sexual harassment in the community
(iv) Understanding and preventing sexual harassment
(v) What are the views of the community about sexual harassment

6
9
 7
0

UNIT 7

SUBSTANCE AND DRUG ABUSE

AUTHORED BY MS KUNAKAHAKUDYIWE CLARA

Source Newsday 2 JULY 2022

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we discuss substance and drug abuse which is now a worldwide problem for many
nations. The globe has been devastated by drug usage, particularly among the younger generation, (Kim,
Hong, Lee, and Hyun 2017). The World Health Organization (WH0) 2003 also raises the same issue,
claiming that abuse has evolved into a global concern that affects practically every country, while the
scope and features vary from one country to another. Regarding this issue, abuse has spread globally,
affecting practically every country, although the scope and features differ depending on the country.

Teenage drug use affects us in our daily lives and is one of the biggest issues in society today. Although
the amount and characteristics of abuse differ according to the country in question, it has become a
7 (WHO 2003). Kaliszewski (2022) asserts that
worldwide epidemic that affects practically every nation
0
during their college years, many young students experiment with a variety of drugs. One in three
students claims to have abused alcohol at some point, and one in five claims to have used illegal drugs.
This type of behavior can lead to addiction. The focus
7 of this unit is on substance abuse’s prevalence,
1
causes, effects, prevention and treatment.

2.0 AREAS OF GROWTH

This unit serves to give students an understanding of substance and drug abuse with the aim of
improving their growth in terms of

 Responsibility
 Accountability
 Discipline
 Professionalism

3.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit students should be able to:

 define substance abuse

 distinguish between substance use, abuse and dependence

 outline the sociocultural, psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral, and biological factors that are
associated with substance abuse
 Discuss the impact of drug abuse on youth
 List at least five dangers of illegal drugs,
 Create partnerships with at least three organisations to raise awareness on substance and drug abuse
by youths
 Conduct operations to detect, disrupt, deter, and seize illegal drugs in transit at the institution
 Identify early signs of abuse.
 design a community-based intervention and initiatives to prevent substance and drug use at the
institution
 Research on the prevalence and effect of drug and substance abuse at their institution

4.0 LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Improved conduct
 Abstinence from substances and drugs
 Activism against drug abuse

5.0 DEFINITION OF TERMS

. Drug abuse:- An intense and often willful misuse of 7drugs. Who (2021))
1

Substance abuse:- harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive substances, including alcohol and illicit
drugs. Who (2021))
Substance dependence 7
2
6.0 PREVALENCE
A research from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) estimates that 284 million
people worldwide, between the ages of 15 and 64, took drugs in 2020, a 26% rise from the preceding ten
years. According to the National Center for Drug Abuse Statistics (NCDAS), as of 2020, 37.309 million
Americans aged 12 and older were current illicit drug users (used within the past 30 days). The UN
believes that there are 28 million drug users in Africa.

According to Jumbe, Mwenda, Kamninga, Mwalwimba and Kalu (2021), a recently published
systematic review discovered that the overall prevalence of "any substance use" among adolescents in
sub-Saharan Africa is 41.6%, with alcohol and tobacco being the most prevalent substances (i.e. 40.8%
and 45.6%, respectively) across the continent compared to any other substance use. Matutu and Mususa
(2019), allege that drug and substance misuse is still on the rise in Zimbabwe and is more common in
metropolitan areas. Maraire and Chethiyar (2020) are also of the same view that that drug abuse has
become an issue among youths in Zimbabwe. They claim that the situation is so bad that 57% of
Zimbabwe's young, or more than half of the population, take drugs. Despite the fact that numerous
stakeholders have taken action to combat the epidemic, the statistics on youth drug misuse in Zimbabwe
rise each year. According to the Zimbabwean government, 107 which is around 60% of patients referred
to mental health facilities have illnesses brought on by substance use (Marandure, Mhizha, Wilson& and
Nhunzvi, 2022)

7.0 Theories of Drug Abuse

Drug and substance abuse can be easily explained basing on four theories namely, Personality, Learning
Theory, Biological Theory and Socio-cultural Theories.

Personality Theories of Drug Abuse

 The main focus of the theories is that those who take drugs have particular features or
characteristics. According to Eze and Omeje (1999), these personality traits include a lack of
ability to delay gratification, a low tolerance for frustration, poor impulse control, a high level of
emotional dependence on others, poor coping skills, and low self-esteem. It is challenging for
people with these personality traits to refrain from using drugs.
 Learning Theory of Drug Abuse
It maintains that dependence or abuse of drugs is learnt. The learning could be by means of
conditioning, instrumental learning or social learning.
 Biological Theory of Drug Abuse 7
2
The theory contends that an individual's susceptibility to drug and substance abuse is governed
by biological or hereditary variables.
 Socio-cultural Theories of Drug Dependence/Abuse:
 According to the Socio-cultural Theories people's
7 sociocultural values influence abuse. For
3
instance, while some cultures approve of the use of marijuana and alcohol, others do not.

8.0 Causes of Substance Use Disorders

According to Tracy (2021) the cause of drug abuse is not fully known but likely include genetic
predisposition, co-occurring conditions and environmental condition

8.1 Genetic causes

Drug abuse often runs in families, suggesting genetics is one of the causes (Tracy, 2021). This is
ascribed to the biological theory of drug abuse. Fareo (2012) illustrating on Biological Theory of Drug
Abuse maintains that that the abuse of drug is advocated by an individual biological or genetic factors
which make them vulnerable to drug addiction. It is important to note that genetics alone is not the
cause of drug and substance abuse. According to Tracy (2021) it is possible for the child to grow
up without drug abuse problems even if the parents were drug abusers and it is also possible to
abuse drugs without having any other drug abuser in the family. This brings us to another cause
which is environment based.

8.2 Environmental Causes of Drug Abuse

The environment especially the social environment contributes significantly to increases in the
prevalence. The environment in which a person spends time can make them more likely to develop
addiction. For instance, children and teenagers who do not have active parental involvement run a higher
chance of using drugs and alcohol. Another important risk factor for adolescents and even adults is peer
pressure. Peer pressure like this does not even have to be overt, confrontational, or forceful. A setting
conducive to experimenting is a common factor that can cause people to use drugs in an effort to fit in.
Among the environmental causes are:

8.3. Family and home life

An unstable home environment, often due to drug abuse or mental illness of the parent can be a
cause of drug and substance abuse. Drug misuse can be greatly influenced by childhood experiences
such as family conflicts, stress, and divorce. Such environments may lead to lack of parental supervision
and children’s behaviors may go unnoticed. When a person grows up unable to healthily deal with the
stressors of chaotic home life, they may turn to substances to cope. They may also be influenced by
family members who misuse substances and normalize these unhealthy behaviors thus leading to
children imitating their family members’ behaviors (learning theory). Lack of parental supervision:
Many parents lack the free time necessary to watch over their children. Some parents barely or never
communicate with their children while others put pressure on the children to do well in school or pass
tests. Sometimes abuse or neglect at home is, encountered. In such situations some adolescents turn to drugs
7 factors and many others initialize and increase
to help them deal with their feelings. These environmental
3
drug abuse (Fareo, 2012).

8.4 Use of drugs by friends/peers ( Peer pressure)

 7
4
Peer pressure plays a major role in influencing many adolescents into drug abuse. This is because peer
pressure is a fact of teenage and youth life. As they try to depend less on parents, they show more
dependency on their friends. When a person's social connections significantly rely on these activities, it
can be difficult to refrain from taking substances (FAREO 2012).Everyone seeks a sense of community
where they fit in. So when drug users make up a person's friend circle and community, they may
succumb to peer pressure and engage in drugs to please peers and be loved and accepted.

8.5 Poor achievement in school

Student self-esteem is typically negatively impacted by poor performance resulting in low self-
esteem. Depression may consequently result from having low self-esteem.

8.6 The Need for energy

For a variety of reasons, it is occasionally necessary to work a lot of hours. For example Fareo (2012)
maintains that increasing economic deterioration that leads to poverty and disempowerment of the
people has driven many parents to send their children out in search of a means of earning something for
contribution to family income. These children engage in hawking, bus conducting, head loading,
scavenging, serving in food canteens and are prone to drug taking so as to gain more energy to work for
long hours.

8.6 Availability of drugs from friends

When drugs are easily available more people get access to them.

9.0 Co- occurring conditions

Drug misuse frequently coexists with other disorders, such as mental illness. While mental illness
itself is not thought to cause drug abuse, one condition may indicate, and be complicated by, the
other. One of the causes of drug abuse may be the attempt to manage the symptoms of an
underlying mental illness such as depression, anxiety, or bi-polar disorder, and begin using drugs or
alcohol to cope with their symptoms.

10.0 Types of Drugs

There are different types of drugs. These include stimulants, narcotics, sedatives, hallucinogens, and
tranquilizers 7
4
 Stimulants:
 These are substances that directly act and stimulate
7 the central nervous system. Users at the initial
5
stage experience pleasant effects such as energy increase. The major source of these comes from
caffeine substance.

 Hallucinogens’:
These are drugs that alter the sensory processing unit in the brain. Thus, producing distorted
perception, feeling of anxiety and euphoria, sadness and inner joy, they normally come from
marijuana, LSD etc.
 . Narcotics:
These drugs relieve pains, induce sleeping and they are addictive. They are found in heroin, codeine,
opium etc.
 Sedatives:
These drugs are among the most widely used and abused. This is largely due to the belief that they
relieve stress and anxiety, and some of them induce sleep, ease tension, cause relaxation or help
users to forget their problems. They are sourced from valium, alcohol, promotazine, chloroform.
 Miscellaneous:
This is a group of volatile solvents or inhalants that provide euphoria, emotional disinhibition and
perpetual distortion of thought to the user. The main sources are glues, spot removers, tube repair,
perfumes, chemicals etc.
 Tranquilizers:
They are believed to produce calmness without bringing drowsiness, they are chiefly derived from
Librium, Valium etc.

11.0 Signs and symptoms of drug abuse

There are many signs and symptoms that can be noted in individuals abusing substances.

11.1 Common signs and symptoms of drug abuse

 Risk taking, for example, driving, having unprotected sex

 Neglecting responsibilities at school, work, or home
 Legal trouble, such as arrests for disorderly conduct, driving under the influence of alcohol

11.1.2 Physical warning signs of drug abuse

 Changes in appetite sleep patterns, physical appearance

 Unusual smells on breath, body, or clothing, or impaired coordination
7
 People who use inhalants like glues, aerosols and
5 vapors may experience watery eyes and vision
impairment
 Change in skin tone (complexion)
 Lack of coordination
  Body marks 7
6
 Drowsiness
 Irritability
 Tremors, slurred speech, or lack of coordination
 Bloodshot eyes, abnormally big or small pupils

11.1.3 Behavioral signs of drug abuse

 A decline in performance and attendance at school or work

 Engaging in secretive or suspicious behaviors
 Sudden change in friends, favorite hangouts, and hobbies
 Unexplained financial problems; borrowing or stealing
 Frequently getting into trouble (fights, accidents, illegal activities)
 Sudden/drastic weight loss.
 Wild mood swings

11.1.4 Psychological warning signs of drug abuse

 Unexplained change in personality or attitude

 Sudden mood swings, irritability, spaced-out, or angry outbursts
 Appears fearful, anxious, or paranoid, with no reason
 Wild mood swings
 anxiety

12.0 Effects of substance abuse

Substance and drug abusers usually struggle with a wide range of issues which negatively impact them
physically, socially, psychologically and morally. As a result one’s health, relationships, stability and
finances may suffer. In worse cases, substance and drug abuse can be fatal.

Now let us go through some of the effects.

12.1 Health related effects

Alcohol and drugs can physically affect internal organs like the heart, liver, and brain. The harm can be
permanent. Additionally, there is a significantly higher chance of a life-threatening illness and stroke.
Those who abuse alcohol are also at a higher risk of pneumonia, tuberculosis and many other respiratory
infections.

7
The health impacts of teen substance usage include accidents
6 injuries (such as car accidents), physical
illnesses and impairments, and the effects of potential overdoses. The danger of suicide, violence,
accident, or disease is exceptionally high among young individuals who use alcohol and other
substances.
12.2 Mental health effects 7
7

Mental health, according to the World Health Organization (WHO) (2004), is a condition of mental
well-being that enables people to manage life's stressors, realize their potential, study and work
effectively, and give back to their communities.” If affected One’s daily living, relationships, and
physical health are also affected. . According to Richert, Anderberg, and Dahlberg (2020), a number of
research evaluations show that 50 to 90 percent of young individuals with drug and alcohol problems
also have severe mental health issues. Similar to this, Marandure, Mhizha, Wilson, and Nhunzvi (2022)
assert that the Zimbabwean government currently states that about 60% of individuals admitted to
mental health institutions have illnesses brought on by substance use.

Task

1 With your partner, look up information on drug and alcohol addicts who also have mental health
issues in any two low- and middle-income nations as well as any two high-income nations of your
choice

.2. Compare the statistics between the low-income and high income countries. .

3. Explain the differences if any.

Adolescent substance misuse is typically associated to mental health issues such as depression,
developmental delays, apathy, withdrawal, and other psychosocial dysfunctions. Youths who abuse
substances are more likely than nonusers to experience depression, conduct issues, personality disorders,
suicidal thoughts, attempted suicide, and suicide. Marijuana use, which is prevalent among youth, has
been shown to interfere with short-term memory, learning, and psychomotor skills. Motivation and
psychosexual/emotional development also may be influenced (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992).

12.3 .Social effects of drugs

Day today social interactions are in most cases negatively affected by drug abuse.

Task
7
7
1. Download at least 4 videos on substance and drug abuse from the social media.

2. Watch and listen to the videos.

3. With your partner discuss the social problems portrayed in the videos.
 7
8

Below is a list of some of the social problems which arise due to substance and drug abuse.

 Damaged relationships with family and friends.

Alcohol and other drug misuse among young people puts many elements of family life in danger and
can cause family crises, sometimes resulting in family dysfunction. Siblings and parents of young
people involved in alcohol and drugs suffer severe effects ( Nowinski, 1990).

 Withdrawal tendencies which ultimately lead to isolation.

Youth who abuse substances frequently feel isolated from and stigmatised by their peers. They
normally stop participating in school and community activities, depriving their peers and
communities of the positive contributions they might otherwise have made.
 Sexually transmitted diseases and unplanned pregnancies due to unprotected sex which can be done
under the influence of drugs.
 Violent behaviours and fights
 Consistent poor decision-making which can also lead to isolation.

12.4 Effects of Drugs on Professional Life:

 Negative attitude towards work, school, or other obligations

 Wasted academic opportunities
 Delayed or deferred career opportunities
 Ignoring responsibilities at work and at school.
 Dropping out of school and other behavioural problems
 Financial loss and distress, for those who become addicted to drugs

12.5 Effects finances.

Addiction frequently affects performance at work, and many addicts lose their jobs because they cannot
concentrate and finish their tasks. Financial strain on families can eventually result from a persistent
battle to pay for alcohol and drugs. The Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992).acknowledges this fact stating
that substance abuse can drain a family's financial and emotional resources.

12.6 Effects on Academics 7

8
Youth substance usage frequently results in low academic achievement. This is due to absenteeism that
is likely to take place. Skipping school, has a negative impact on performance hence decline in grades is
experienced. Also in most cases drug abusers struggle with concentration, or are not able to retain
information as quickly or easily leading to poor performance..
7 Reduced motivation is a problem for
9
substance and drug users, and this can affect how well they perform in class as a whole.

Activity

In your cohorts, find out and share further repercussions of substance and drug abuse

you have observed in your communities.

13.0 Prevention
Substance and drug abuse can be prevented with the help of a number of measures. The strategies can be
combined. Before we look at some of the strategies we want you to discuss with your partner the
importance of preventing substance and drug abuse.

The following prevention strategies can be employed.

13.1 Information dissemination

Information dissemination is about raising people's risk awareness and providing knowledge on the
types, effects, and consequences of alcohol, tobacco, and other substance use, abuse, and addiction.
Additionally, it imparts information about prevention strategies, plans, and services. It helps set and
reinforce norms (for example, underage drinking and drug dealers will not be tolerated in this
neighborhood).

13.2 Prevention education

This strategy focuses on critical life and social skills development. For example decision-making,
assertiveness and critical analysis. Currently critical analysis is necessary especially of social media
messages.
13.3 Alternatives
This strategy enables targeted populations to take part in events that do not promote juvenile use of
alcohol, cigarettes, or other drugs.. Constructive and healthy activities offset the attraction to, or
otherwise meet the needs usually filled by, alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use.

13.4 Problem identification and referral

This strategy calls for identification, education, and counseling for those youth who have indulged in
7
age-inappropriate use of tobacco products or alcohol,9 or who have indulged in the first use of illicit
drugs. Activities under this strategy would include screening for tendencies toward substance abuse and
referral for preventive treatment for curbing such tendencies
 8
0
13.5 Community based process.
This strategy intends to improve the community's capacity to treat and prevent alcohol, tobacco, and
other substance use issues more successfully.. Activities include organizing, planning, enhancing
efficiency and effectiveness of services implementation, interagency collaboration, coalition building,
and networking. Building healthy communities encourages healthy lifestyle choices.
13.6 Environmental approach
This strategy establishes or modifies social norms, codes, and attitudes that have an impact on the
incidence and prevalence of alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use issues in the general population
Measures comprise price increases, community-wide initiatives, and legislation that limit accessibility
and availability.
14.0 Tips for Preventing Substance Abuse
According to National Institute on Drug Abuse, there is no one way or guaranteed way to prevent
someone from abusing drugs and alcohol. There are many other things that everyone can do to prevent
substance abuse. Below is a tabling showing the top five ways to prevent substance abuse:

Understand how substance Substance abuse starts by

abuse develops
 Using addictive drugs (illicit or prescribed) for recreational
purposes
 Seeking out intoxication every time you use
 Abusing prescription medication

Avoid Temptation and Peer Develop healthy friendships and relationships by avoiding friends or
Pressure. family members who pressure you to use substances. if you surround
yourself with people who abuse drugs and alcohol you are more likely
to as well. If you are looking to stay drug free develop a good way to
just say no (assertiveness), prepare a good excuse or plan ahead of
time to keep from giving into peer pressure.

Seek help for mental illness A professional will provide you with healthy coping skills to alleviate
your symptoms without
8 turning to drugs and alcohol.
(e.g. ) anxiety, depression 0

Examine the risk factors The more you are aware of your biological, environmental and
 8 more likely you are to overcome them
physical risk factors the
1

Keep a well-balanced life. People often turn to drugs and alcohol when something in their life is
missing or not working Practicing stress management skills can help
you overcome these life stressors and will help you live a balanced
and healthy life. Develop goals and dreams for your future. These will
help you focus on what you want and help you realize that drugs and
alcohol will simply get in the way and hinder you from achieving
your goals.

Sources: National Institute on Drug Abuse

15.0 Intervention for treatment

According to Blair (2021), helping your loved one accept the required therapy is a crucial first step if they
have a problem with substance abuse. Blair (2021) further maintains that substance use disorder is a complex
process that often needs a long-term plan. People who get dependent on drugs or alcohol cannot just stop;
they typically require rehabilitation.

15.1 Goals for intervention

It is critical to inform the affected person about their substance abuse and support them in accepting the
intervention. Thus the main goal is to get their cooperation. According to Blair (2021) interventions try to
achieve the following results:
15.1.1 Awareness
Awareness involves educating the individual about the effects their drug use has on their friends and family

15.1.2 Motivation.

The individual needs to be made aware of the impact their substance abuse has on their family and friends..

15.1.3 Action plan.

Establish a plan of action for recovery with specific objectives and instructions.

15.2 Intervention programs

Various programs are available to facilitate treatment and rehabilitation of substance and drug abusers.
Intervention can involve either non-medication programs or medication programs. Non-medication simply
8
1 means natural methods are used. For example,
means programs where drugs are not administered. This
yoga, and meditation in treating depression. Thus medication programs entail the use of drugs.
 Activity 8
2

1. Before we introduce the intervention programs, List the programs you are aware of for each

Category.

2. Compare your list with the list below.

15.2.1 Non-Medication Interventions

Counseling

The term counseling in substance and drug abuse refers to talk therapy with a professional, the main
goal of which is to assist the patient in quitting using drugs. It may also deal with practical patient needs
for services to support their drug abstinence. There are different counseling techniques such as cognitive
behavioral therapy, motivational interviewing, twelve-step facilitation, and contingency management
which can be provided by a licensed addictions counselor, a mental health therapist, a nurse, a
psychologist, a physician, or social worker. Counseling can occur in various settings including a
physician’s office, a clinic, an intensive outpatient treatment, a partial hospitalization program, or during
inpatient treatment. It may accompany methadone maintenance treatment, office based buprenorphine
treatment, or smoking cessation treatment. The amount of counseling provided relates to the level of
intensity of the substance abuse program.

Group Therapy
Group therapy brings patients together on a regular basis to discuss drug use and efforts at maintaining
abstinence. This type of therapy is led by a professional who keeps the group focused, maintains the
rules, and limits individuals who try to monopolize the group’s time and attention. The patients in the
group have the primary role in the therapeutic process. Using their own experience, they can confront
other patients’ behavior as peers. The most effective groups consist of a consistent set of members that
support one another while growing and maturing as a group.. Group therapy can occur in inpatient and
outpatient settings, both short and long-term.

Support Groups for Addiction

For many people who struggle with addiction, support groups can be quite beneficial. They offer a sense of
8
community, reduce stigma, and provide solid support 2and resources for living a life free of alcohol and
drugs. Support groups are usually recommended after completing an addiction treatment programme. In
Zimbabwe Alcohol Anonymous offers this support.
 8
3

Task

In your corhorts. research on support groups available for individuals with substance and

drug abuse problems. Focus on the following:

What services do they offer?

How effective are they?

How known are they?

15.2.2 Medication programmes

These involve the use of medicines to manage some conditions.

According to Douaihy, Kelly, and Sullivan (2013), patients with strong physical dependence can be treat
ed with medications to help them feel more at ease during the first phases of treatment after quitting drin
king or using drugs. They go on to say that medications could potentially be more effective in the
context of psychosocial treatment.

REFERENCES

Alvarado Parkway Institute (2018). The effects of drug and alcohol [Link] from
[Link]

Blair, W. (2021).What Is Intervention for Substance Misuse?

1[Link]

Douaihy, A.B. Kelly T M., and Sullivan, C. (2013). Medications for Substance Use Disorders

[Link]
8
3
Douaihy, A.B. Kelly T M., and Sullivan, C. (2013). Medications for Substance Use Disorders

[Link]
Fareo, D. O. (2012) Drug Abuse Among Nigeria’s Adolescents
8 Strategies for Counselling. The Journal
4
of International Social Research. 5(20)

Jumbe, Mwenda Kamninga, Mwalwimba and Kalu (2021). Determinants of adolescent substance use in
Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis protocol DOI[Link]

Kaliszewski, M., (2022) The Most Commonly Abused Drugs in College

[Link]

Leylah Ndinda, Kampala (2013) Drug abuse in Africa [Link]

rise-in-africa/a-16614023

Mahbuba Naznin Sania 2(010;) Drug addiction among undergraduate students of private universities in
Bangladesh. Available online at [Link] Available online at [Link]

Maraire, T., & Chethiyar, S. D. (2020). Drug and substance abuse problem by the Zimbabwean youth: A
psychological perspective. Practitioner Research, 2, 41-59.

Matutu, V. and Mususa, D. (2019). Drug and Alcohol Abuse among Young People in Zimbabwe: A
Crisis of Morality or Public Health Problem

Available at SSRN: [Link] or [Link]

Marandure,, B, Mhizha S. Wilson, A. and Nhunzvi, C.(2022 )

Understanding the nature of substance use in Zimbabwe: State of the art and ways 4 forward: A scoping
review protocol doi: [Link]
National Center for drug abuse statistics (2022). Drug Abuse Statistics

[Link]

National Institute on Drug Abuse: [Link] Above

the Stress: [Link] SAMHSA: [Link]
support-tools/youth-young-adults

News Day July 2, 2022 7:09 AM Drug abuse stats should shock authorities into
action [Link]
8
Richet,[Link],[Link] Dahlberg,M.(2020) Mental health problems among young people in
4
substance abuse treatment in Sweden.
[Link]
Tracy, N.(2021)Drug abuse causes: What is the
8 cause of Drug Abuse? Retrieved from
5
[Link]
abuse

UNODC World Drug Report 2022 [Link]

2022
WHO (2003) Substance abuse research report [Link]

World Health Organization. (2004) Promoting mental health: concepts, emerging evidence, practice
(Summary Report) Geneva.

8
5
 8
6

UNIT 7.

SEXUAL AND GENDER BASED VIOLENCE

AUTHORED BY MR SITHOLE DAVID. M

Sexual and Gender Based Violence (Adapted from where?)

AREAS OF GROWTH
This unit encapsulates the following aspects of the student growth and development:

 Responsibility
 Accountability
 Discipline
 Respect
 Integrity
 Assertiveness
 Problem solving skill
 Critical thinking
 Effective communication skills
 Self confidence
 Interpersonal skills
 Humility 8
6
 Time management
 Accepting criticism
 Mutual respect
  Anger management 8
7
 Negotiation and compromise
 Trust

3.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit students should be able to:

 define Sexual and Gender Based Violence

 Outline causes of gender based violence

 outline the sociocultural, psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral, and biological factors that are
associated with Sexual and GBV
 discuss the impact of GBV on the family circle
 list at least four dangers Sexual and Gender Based Violence
 create partnerships with at least three organisations to raise awareness Sexual and Gender Based
Violence
 conduct operations to detect, disrupt, deter, and seize Sexual and Gender Based Violence.
 Identify early signs of abuse.
 design a community-based intervention and initiatives to prevent incidence of the institution Sexual
and Gender Based Violence in the university
 research on the prevalence and effect of their institution Sexual and Gender Based Violence

4.0 LEARNING OUTCOME.

 Producing students who demonstrate improved conduct and respect for human dignity
 Students who can challenge cultural values which perpetuate SGBV
 Students who can identify forms of SGBV in their communities and fins solutions to the problem
 Students who can carry out evidence based programming and advocacy on SGBV
 Activism against Sexual and Gender Based Violence
 Accountability to self and relations

5.0 Introduction

Gender-based violence (GBV) continues to be one of the most notable and grave social human rights
violations that occurs within all societies (United Nations, 2015; Eldoseri and Sharp, 2017; EIGE, 2021).
People of all genders experience GBV, but the majority of victims are usually women and girls. Gender
8
based violence poses a serious threat to women’s mental and physical health including depression,
7
suicide and self-harm, chronic physical pain. In Zimbabwe studies have shown that GBV affects the
health of women and girls physically, emotionally and psychologically (Mashiri, 2013). According to
the Zimbabwe Demographic Health Survey (2015) physical violence is the most common form of GBV
in Zimbabwe. Women and girls continue to be physically,
8 sexually and emotionally abused despite the
8
country having a comprehensive multi-sectoral legal and policy framework that mandates institutions
like the police and health sectors to come up with strategies and interventions to prevent GBV.

6.0 Definition of terms

The United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women defines gender based
violence (GBV) as… any act of violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or
psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary
deprivations of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life

Sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) is violence committed against a person because of his or her
sex or gender. It is forcing another person to do something against his or her will through violence,
coercion, threats, deception, cultural expectations, or economic means. Although the majority of victims
and survivors of SGBV are girls and women, boys and men can also be harmed by SGBV.

Related to SGBV is the term rape which can be defined as: Non-consensual penetration of the vagina,
anus or mouth with a penis or other body part. Also includes penetration of the vagina or anus with an
object. Rape includes marital rape and anal rape/ sodomy.

Sexual gender based violence includes sexual assault which is any form of non-consensual sexual
contact that does not result in or include penetration. Examples include: attempted rape, as well as
unwanted kissing, fondling, or touching of genitalia and buttocks.

Sexual exploitation is a very common practice especially in human trafficking. The term “sexual
exploitation” means any actual or attempted abuse of a position of vulnerability, differential power, or
trust, for sexual purposes, including, but not limited to, profiting monetarily, socially or politically from
the sexual exploitation of another. Those who practice pimping can be said to be sexually exploiting
other people. Forced prostitution can also fall under this category.

The term “sexual abuse” means the actual or threatened physical intrusion of a sexual nature, whether by
force or under unequal or coercive conditions.

Usually, sexual and gender based violence comes with physical violence that is not sexual in nature.
Example include: hitting, slapping, choking, cutting, shoving, burning, shooting or use of any weapons,
acid attacks or any other act that results in pain, discomfort or injury

Domestic violence/intimate partner refers to violence that takes place between intimate partners
(spouses, cohabiting partners or boyfriend/girlfriend).8Domestic violence is often used interchangeably
8
with intimate partner violence, but also can include violence by family members other than a spouse.

Forced marriage is the marriage of an individual against her or his will

Early or child marriage (marriage under the age of legal
8 consent) is a form of forced marriage as the
9
girls are not legally competent to agree to such unions)

Denial of resources, opportunities or services refers to a denial of rightful access to economic

resources/assets or livelihood opportunities, education, health or other social services. Examples include
a widow prevented from receiving an inheritance, earnings forcibly taken by an intimate partner or
family member, a woman prevented from using contraceptives, a girl prevented from attending school,
etc. “Economic abuse” is included in this category. Some acts of confinement may also fall under this
category.

Human trafficking refers to the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by
means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the
abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to
achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation.
Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of
sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the
removal of organs.

7.0 Types of SGBV

Gender based violence can manifests in different forms. The most common forms are:

 Physical violence includes beatings

8
9

Physical Assault as one major form of SGBV

 Verbal violence.
 Psychological violence includes the enforcement
9 of strict isolation, constant denigration, and
0
public humiliation.
 Sexual violence includes Sexual abuse includes sexual harassment, coerced sex and forced
pregnancy

Child pregnancy as a form of SGBV

 Forced marriages.
 Socio-economic violence.
 Domestic violence or in intimate relationships.

Domestic Violence on the rise

 Harassment and sexual harassment

 Stabbing
9
0
 9
1

A woman stabbing her husband with a kitchen knife

 Burning which is very common in South Africa

 Intentional deprivation of food.
 Virginity testing
 Forced widow inheritance
 Abuse of women and girls with disabilities
 Abuse of children for ritual purposes or to cure HIV.
 Cyber bullying

Discussion Question

1. Describe cyber bullying and explain how women in your community are suffering from this kind
of exploitation

Major Causes of Sexual and Gender based Violence

There are many push factors which ultimately result in sexually and gender based violence. Some of the
push factors of SGBV include:

 Poverty/ depleted incomes in a family

9
1
 9
2

Poverty as major contributor of SGBV

 Loss of social comfort
 New life styles
 Covid-19
 Greedy

Discussion Question

2. Identify and describe some of the traditional forces which perpetuated SGBV in your
community? How did the practices ended:

Effects of SGBV

Gender-based violence produces a variety of negative impacts for both the individual and the
community, including chronic illnesses, poor mental health, decreased sexual and reproductive health,
physical injury, and even death.

 Loss of self-esteem

9
2
 9
3

Loss of self-esteem/injuries as a result of SGBV

 Can lead to suicide

Reason why some People do not Report SGBV

 Stigma
 Shame
 Guilt
 Fear of Ostracization
 Reframing of sexual abuse as torture
 Criminalization due to same-sex acts being illegal
 Homophobic backlash
 Social Prejudice eg: Questioning of personal masculinity
 Non-recognition of females as perpetrators of Intimate-Partner Violence (IPV)
 Loss of access to children
 Physical damage e.g.: Broken bones, lacerations, cuts
 STIs e.g.: HIV/AIDS
 Sterilisation e.g.: via castration
 Mental illnesses e.g.: Depression

Discussion Question

3. In groups, design awareness campaign strategies which can be used to help victims of sexual and
gender based violence open up? How can your strategy embrace other stakeholders in the
society to fight stigma?

Service Centre’s for SGBV Victims in Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe has made significant progress in developing

9 and adopting progressive constitutional,
legislative and policy frameworks aimed at ending 3all forms of SGBV, and frameworks explicitly
providing for the right to freedom from all forms of violence in both public and private spheres
Zimbabwe has stepped up efforts to mitigate cases of9sexual and gender based violence by establishing
4
service centres throughout the country. It is encouraged that people should not wait until they become
victims of this unjust practice. People should make a deliberate effort to seek information about SGBV
from correct centres and be guided accordingly. The following centres are some of the service stations
where people can be assisted:
 Adult Rape Clinic, Parirenyatwa Hospital
 Anti-Domestic Violence Council
 Child line
 Ministry of Women Affairs, Community and SMEs Development
 Family Support Trust
 Justice for Children Trust
 Katswe Sistahood
 Leonard Cheshire Disability
 Ministry of Health & Child Care
 Musasa Project
 National Peace and Reconciliation Commission
 Padare/Enkundleni Men’s Forum on Gender
 ROOTS Community Organisation
 Rozaria Memorial Trust
 Shamwari Ye Mwanasikana
 UN Population Fund
 UN Children’s Fund
 UN Fund for Women
 Women and Law in Southern Africa
 Women’s Coalition of Zimbabwe
 Zimbabwe Gender Commission
 Zimbabwe Human Rights Commission
 Zimbabwe Media Commission
 Zimbabwe Women Lawyers Association
 ZRP Victim Friendly Unit
 Masvingo - Musasa
 Harare - Adult Rape Clinic
 Manicaland - FACT
 Bulawayo - ZWLA
9
 Mashonaland West - FACT 4
 Mashonaland Central – Katswe
 Midlands – Musasa
 Matabeleland North – Zimbabwe Association of Christian Hospitals
  Matabeleland South - One Stop Centre at Gwanda
9 Hospital
5

Tips for Youth to Prevent Gender-Based Violence and Inequality

 Educate yourself on the root causes of violence

 Interrupt sexist and discriminatory language
 Be critical and question
 Interrupt abuse
 Stop sexual harassment
 Develop an action plan
 Stop victim blaming
 Stop rape culture

Fast facts:

 Slightly more than 1 in 3 women have experienced violence at the hands of a partner or family
member.
 Nearly 40% of women who are murdered die at the hands of their partners.
 90% of rape victims are women.
 80% of adult victims know their rapist and over 90% of youth victims know theirs.
 Many women feel that violence against wives is justified in some cases. Ethiopia, India, Bhutan,
Samoa, and Laos are just some countries where over half of women feel as such.
 Over 90% of offenders never see justice.
 Gender-based violence is incredibly expensive. The costs of healthcare, psychosocial counseling,
legal services, and lost wages from time spent recovering total in the trillions of dollars every
year. This is comparable to the total amount of military spending by all countries each year

Conclusion

Gender-based violence is an issue that affects every single person either personally or by acquaintance.

This violence often goes unseen, untreated, and unchecked. One way to begin correcting the injustice of
violence against women is to understand the different types of violence that women experience and then
look for ways to best address each type of violence 9
5

References
High-level Political Compact on ending Gender- Based
9 Violence and harmful practices in Zimbabwe
6
2021-203

Addis, M. E., & Mahalik, J. R. (2003). Men, masculinity, and the contexts of help seeking. American
Psychologist, 58(1), 5–14. American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual
of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington: Author.

Andrykowski, M. A., Cordova, M. J., Studts, J. L., & Miller, T. W. (1998). Posttraumatic stress disorder
after treatment for breast cancer: prevalence of diagnosis and use of the PTSD Checklist—
Civilian Version (PCL–C) as a screening instrument. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66,
586–590.
Apsler, R., Cummins, M. R., & Carl, S. (2003). Perceptions of the police by female victims of domestic
partner violence. Violence Against Women, 9(11), 1318–1335.

Archer, J. (2000). Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual couples: a meta-analytic review.
Psychological Bulletin, 126
erevensky, J. L., & Deschamps, L. (1997). Young adults from divorced and intact families: perceptions
about preferred custo- dial arrangements. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 27(1),
105–122.
Dobash, R. E., & Dobash, R. P. (1984). The nature and antecedents of violent events. British Journal of
Criminology, 24, 269–288.

Donnelly, D. A., Cook, K. J., & Wilson, L. (1999). Provision and exclusion: the dual face of services to
battered women in three Deep South states. Violence Against Women, 5(7), 710–741.

Ferraro, K. J., & Johnson, J. M. (1983). How women experience battering: the process of victimization.
Social Problems, 30, 325–338.

Finkelhor, D., Hotaling, G. T., Lewis, I. A., & Smith, C. (1990). Sexual abuse in a national survey of
adult men and women: prevalence, characteristics and risk factors. Child Abuse & Neglect, 14,19–28.
First, M. B., Gibbon, M., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. (1996).

9
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 9
7
UNIT 8
HUMAN TRAFFICKING

AUTHORED BY MRS MUKANDO RUMBIDZAI

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Human trafficking involves the use of force, fraud, or coercion to obtain some type of labor or
commercial sex act. Every year, millions of men, women, and children are trafficked worldwide. It
involves the exploitation of people through force, coercion, threat, and deception and includes human
rights abuses such as debt bondage, deprivation of liberty, and lack of control over freedom and labor.
Trafficking can be for purposes of sexual exploitation or labor exploitation. Sexual exploitation includes
forcing an individual to engage in commercial sex acts, including prostitution or the production of
pornography.

1.2 AREAS OF GROWTH

This unit serves to give students an understanding of Human Trafficking in preparing them for the future
world of Human Trafficking. Students will be exposed to tasks and activities which stimulate their
perceptions on number of distinct phases on human trafficking issues:

 Agriculture
 Fishing
 Mining
 Domestic Work
 Labour
 Marriages

1.3 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit students should be able to:

 Define Human Trafficking

 Explain the importance of Human Trafficking
 Explain the demerits of Human Trafficking
 Know how to alarm people on human Trafficking

1.4 LEARNING OUTCOMES 9

7

 Improved knowledge in human trafficking.

 Improved, alertness and strategies in reporting
 Ability to teach the rest of the people
 1.5 DEFINITION OF TERMS 9
8
1.51 Benefit Fraud

The term ‘benefit fraud’ refers to the abuse of social benefits, while human trafficking for benefit fraud
is a broader phenomenon. Personal details of a person who is in a vulnerable or subordinate position are
used to apply for benefits from the state, municipality or other entities. The exploiters may also take out
quick loans in the victim's name. The money is not given to the victim, but the exploiters keep it to
themselves

1.52 Relationship

Using emotional manipulation to cause a victim to believe the trafficker or associate of the trafficker is
romantically interested in him or her, or causing the victim to regard the trafficker as a parental figure

1.53 Isolation

Restricting the victim’s interaction with the outside world, through language barriers, forbidding victims
from talking to their friends and family, and/or having victims work in a remote location

1.54 Religion, culture and belief

Using spiritual or cultural practices, rituals, superstitions, or deep personal values to compel the victim’s
obedience

1.55 Debt Bondage

Charging victims fees for transportation, recruitment and/or living expenses, and compounding or
charging interest on those debts so that victims must continue working for the trafficker

1.56 Deception

Tricking victims into believing that they’ll be paid once they start working for the trafficker, that their
families abroad will be paid and/or taken care of, or that authorities are not to be trusted

1.57 Collusion

Forcing victims to participate in illegal activity, such as visa fraud, theft, prostitution, or recruiting
additional victims, which causes victims to feel complicit in their traffickers’ crimes

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1.58 Unique Control Mechanisms in Sex Trafficking
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Sex traffickers frequently use sexual abuse and rape to terrorize victims. As their sense of dependency
and social isolation increases, victims can become bonded to their traffickers and to pimps who lure
them into forced prostitution through the promise of a romantic relationship. Relational ensnarement
typically involves elaborate and carefully planned schemes,
9 where traffickers earn victims’ trust over
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time and create a dynamic in which victims seek to earn the love and affection of the traffickers.
Runaways and children in foster care are also highly vulnerable to traffickers looking to take advantage
of young people, particularly for sexual exploitation. Studies estimate that over 50 percent of sex
trafficking victims nationwide come from foster care.

Since threats of deportation and seizing immigration documents are not effective against U.S.
nationals, traffickers who target vulnerable American youth often use physical and verbal abuse, threats
of force, threats of harm to third parties, confiscating wages, and physical restraint and isolation to keep
victims under their control.

Case:

In Chiredzi, sex traffickers recruit girls as young as 11 from surrounding areas. Children were forced to
engage in sexual acts in exchange for water in Chitungwiza. Traffickers use false promises of legitimate
employment opportunities, particularly in nursing, including through social media and messaging
applications, to lure Zimbabweans into sex trafficking and forced labor in neighboring countries,
particularly South Africa, and the Middle East. In South Africa, traffickers exploit Zimbabweans for
labor without pay in agriculture, construction, factories, mines, information technology, and hospitality
businesses. Syndicates operating in South Africa recruit undocumented Zimbabwean migrants with
promises of legitimate employment in mining and force them into labor in the illegal mining industry.
Due to economic conditions caused by the pandemic, undocumented Zimbabwean women and children
increasingly travel to South Africa for employment, where their lack of legal status increases their
vulnerability to traffickers. Facilitators recruit and transport Zimbabwean migrants to South Africa,
where international criminal syndicates subject them to sex trafficking in Musina, Pretoria,
Johannesburg, and Durban.

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Traffickers have exploited Zimbabwean women in domestic servitude, forced labor, and sex trafficking
in Iraq, Kenya, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Oman, the People’s Republic of China (PRC), and Uganda, often
under the guise of legitimate employment. Zimbabwean labor recruiters recruit Zimbabwean women for
exploitation in domestic servitude in Oman, where their passports are confiscated, and they are forced to
work without pay. Traffickers use fraudulent scholarship schemes to lure Zimbabwean students to
Cyprus ostensibly for educational purposes and exploit them in forced labor and sex trafficking. Media
reported Zimbabweans living abroad, particularly in the United Kingdom and Ireland, trick
Zimbabweans to travel abroad under the pretenses of tourism or legitimate employment and force them
into domestic servitude.

Traffickers recruit Zimbabwean girls into neighboring countries with promises of marriage and, during
marriage, force them into domestic work. Zimbabwe is a transit country for Somalis, Ethiopians,
Malawians, and Zambians en route to exploitation in South Africa. Zimbabwe is also a destination
country for forced labor and sex trafficking. Traffickers’ subject Mozambican children to forced labor in
street vending, including in Mbare, the largest informal market in Harare. Mozambican children who
work on relatives’ farms in Zimbabwe are often undocumented and cannot enroll in school, which
increases their vulnerability of trafficking.

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The government decreased victim identification and protection efforts. The government did not identify any
trafficking victims, compared with identifying 32 trafficking victims in the previous reporting period. The
government stated no organization identified any trafficking victims, but two NGOs and one international
organization identified 91 suspected trafficking victims and reported them to the Ministry of Public Service,
Labor, and Social Welfare’s (MPSLSW) Department of Social Welfare. The 91 victims included 17
Zimbabwean adult females subjected to a mix of labor and sex trafficking, including in Uganda, Iraq, Kenya,
and domestically; and 67 children, including 57 exploited in sex trafficking. In addition, media and NGOs
reported identifying 350 child sex trafficking victims near the Mazowe mines. Furthermore, an
environmental group that gathered data and observations of child labor and exploitation at diamond and gold
mines in Manicaland identified more than 38 children as young as 14 forced to sell drugs. NGOs provided all
trafficking victim care, including shelter, food, medical treatment, family reunification and reintegration,
counseling, and income-generating assistance. The shelters and services for trafficking, domestic violence,
and gender-based violence (GBV) victims were available to both males and females, nationals and
foreigners, and irrespective of the victim’s participation in legal proceedings. For at least the third
consecutive year, the government relied on NGOs and foreign donors to fund trafficking victim services; the
organizations struggled to operate without adequate and consistent financial support, and some could only
provide short-term care. While the government had one operational shelter that could accommodate 30 GBV
and trafficking victims and 24 vulnerable children’s homes, these shelters did not care for any trafficking
victims during the reporting period. The 2014 anti-trafficking act required the government to establish
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service centers in each of Zimbabwe’s 10 provinces and 0provide counseling, rehabilitation, and reintegration;
the government had not established these centers by the end of the reporting period.

Ways to help end human trafficking

  Spread the word 1
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 Think before you shop
 Tell your friends
 Volunteer Locally
 Stay Informed
 Know the signs
 Raise your voice

References

Brown, M. P. (2014). American intervention in Central America. Journal of Race

Development, 4(4), 409–[Link] Scholar
Bruneau, T., Dammert, L., & Skinner, E. (2011). Maras: Gang violence and security in Central
America. Austin, TX: University of Texas [Link] Scholar
Bryant-Davis, T. (2005). Thriving in the wake of trauma: A multicultural guide. Westport,
CT: [Link] Scholar
Bryant-Davis, T., & Ocampo, C. (2005). Racist incident-based trauma. Counseling
Psychologist, 33, 479–[Link] Scholar
Bryant-Davis, T., & Thummala-Narra, P. (2018). Cultural oppression and human trafficking: Exploring
the role of racism and ethnic bias. In Sidun, N. M. & Hume, D. L. (Eds.), A feminist perspective on
human trafficking of women and girls (pp. 146–163). New York, NY: [Link] Scholar
CdeBaca, L. (2010a). Letter from Ambassador Luis CdeBaca to the Trafficking in Persons
Report. [Link]/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2010/[Link] Scholar
CdeBaca, L. (2010b). Best practices: Human trafficking in disaster
zones. [Link] Google Scholar

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UNIT 9

LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIES FOR SRHR

Learning objectives

Key idea: There are a number of international,

regional, and national laws, policies,
agreements, and strategies that address
human rights impacting sexual and
reproductive health.

At the end of this session, students will be able to:

Illustrate violation of human rights that impact on SRH;

Identify and explain various international, regional,

and national laws, policies, agreements, and
strategies that protect young people’s SRHR;

Advocate for a synchronization of the laws and

instruments in Zimbabwe that support effective
implementation of SRH services for all its citizens.

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Activity 1
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1. Cases of fraud in companies are on the increase. Prepare a presentation paper and staff develop
students on the dangers of fraud. Suggest possible measures to reduce cases of fraud.

2. Define human trafficking

3. What are the causes of human trafficking

4. Which countries are at the front of human trafficking

5. Which policies do you suggest would reduce human trafficking

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