Op Amp Precision Half-wave Rectifier

CIRCUIT

OP_HW_RECTIFIER.CR Download the SPICE file

Rectifiers are often called into action to measure signal strength. Rectify an AC
signal, pass it through a low-pass filter and the resulting DC level represents some
measure of the signal's magnitude. Although the series diode is the classic rectifier, it
can't rectify signals smaller that it own forward voltage! But what if your expected
amplitude can be as low as 100 mV? Op amps to the rescue! The advantage of op amp
circuits lies in their ability to compensate for non-linear devices in the feedback loop.
Combining the rectifying action of a diode with the accuracy of an op amp, this circuit
creates a precision rectifier.

For the negative half-cycle input, the op amp output goes positive forcing D1 to
turn ON and D2 to shut OFF.
It looks and acts just like the inverting amplifier, except for a diode in a series with
the op amp's output pin. But no need to worry, the output pin adjusts itself higher (by
the diode's forward voltage, about 0.6V ) to get the right voltage at the Vo. The classic
inverting equation applies.

Vo = - R2 / R1 ∙ VS

For R1 = R2 = 10k and VS = -1 V, the output is Vo = - 10k / 10k x -1 = +1 V. The

current running through both R1 and R2 is I = VS / R1 = 1 /10k = 0.1 mA. And like
the classic inverting amplifier, the op amp holds the negative input V- at 0V (virtual
ground).

For the positive half-cycle input, the op amp output goes negative forcing D2 to
turn ON and D1 to shut OFF.

The first question to ask is what is the output voltage Vo?

A clamping circuit is used to place either the positive or negative peak of

a signal at a desired level. The dc component is simply added or
subtracted to/from the input signal. The clamper is also referred to as an
IC restorer and ac signal level shifter.

In some cases, like a TV receiver, when the signal passes through the
capacitive coupling network, it loses its dc component. This is when the
clamper circuit is used so as to re-establish the dc component into the
signal input. Though the dc component that is lost in transmission is not
the same as that introduced through a clamping circuit, the necessity to
establish the extremity of the positive or negative signal excursion at
some reference level is important.

Types of clamping circuits

A clamp circuit adds the positive or negative dc component to the input
signal so as to push it either on the positive side, as illustrated in figure
(a) or on the negative side, as illustrated in figure (b).

Positive clamper

The circuit will be called a positive clamper, when the signal is pushed
upward by the circuit. When the signal moves upward, as shown in figure
(a), the negative peak of the signal coincides with the zero level.

Negative Clamper

The circuit will be called a negative clamper, when the signal is pushed
downward by the circuit. When the signal is pushed on the negative side,
as shown in figure (b), the positive peak of the input signal coincides with
the zero level.
Working of a diode clamping circuit
For a clamping circuit at least three components — a diode, a capacitor
and a resistor are required. Sometimes an independent dc supply is also
required to cause an additional shift. The important points regarding
clamping circuits are:

(i) The shape of the waveform will be the same, but its level is shifted
either upward or downward,
(ii) There will be no change in the peak-to-peak or rms value of the wave-
form due to the clamping circuit. Thus, the input waveform and output
waveform will have the same peak-to-peak value that is, 2V max. This is
shown in the figure above. It must also be noted that same reading will be
obtained in the ac voltmeter for the input voltage and the clamped output
voltage.
(iii) There will be a change in the peak and average values of the
waveform. In the figure shown above, the input waveform has a peak
value of Vmax and average value over a complete cycle is zero. The
clamped output varies from 2 V max and 0 (or 0 and -2Vmax). Thus ths peak
value of the clamped output is 2Vmax and average value is Vmax.
(iv) The values of the resistor R and capacitor C affect the waveform.
(v) The values for the resistor R and capacitor C should be determined
from the time constant equation of the circuit, t = RC. The values must be
large enough to make sure that the voltage across the capacitor C does
not change significantly during the time interval the diode is non-
conducting. In a good clamper circuit, the circuit time constant t = RC
should be at least ten times the time period of the input signal voltage.
It is advantageous to first consider the condition under which the diode
becomes forward biased.

Clamping circuits are often used in television receivers as dc restorers.

The signal that is sent to the TV receiver may lose the dc components
after being passed through capacitively coupled amplifiers. Thus the
signal loses its black and white reference levels and the blanking level.
Before passing these signals to the picture tube, these reference levels
have to be restored. This is done by using clamper circuits. They also find
applications in storage counters, analog frequency meter, capacitance
meter, divider and stair-case waveform generator.

Consider a negative clamping circuit, a circuit that shifts the original

signal in a vertically downward direction, as shown in the figure below.
The diode D will be forward biased and the capacitor C is charged with the
polarity shown, when an input signal is applied. During the positive half
cycle of input, the output voltage will be equal to the barrier potential of
the diode, V0 and the capacitor is charged to (V – V Q). During the negative
half cycle, the diode becomes reverse-biased and acts as an open-circuit.
Thus, there will be no effect on the capacitor voltage. The resistance R,
being of very high value, cannot discharge C a lot during the negative
portion of the input waveform. Thus during negative input, the output
voltage will be the sum of the input voltage and the capacitor voltage and
is equal to – V – (V — V 0) or – (2 V – V0). The value of the peak-to-peak
output will be the difference of the negative and positive peak voltage
levels is equal to V0-[-(2V-V0)] or 2 V.
The figure shown below can be modified into a positive clamping circuit
by reconnecting the diode with reversed polarity. The positive clamping
circuit moves the original signal in a vertically upward direction. A
positive clamping circuit is shown in the figure below. It contains a diode
D and a capacitor C as are contained in a negative clamper. The only
difference in the circuit is that the polarity of the diode is reversed. The
remaining explanation regarding the working of the circuit is the same as
it is explained for the negative clamper.

To remember which way the dc level of a signal moves, look at the figure
shown below. Notice that the diode arrows point downward, the same
direction as the dc shift.

Negative Clamping Circuit

Similarly, in the figure shown below, the diode arrow points upward, again
the same direction as the dc shifts. It means that when the diode points
upward. We have a positive dc clamper and when the diode points
downward, the circuit is a negative dc clamper.

Positive Clamping Circuit

A number of clamping circuits with their effect on the input signal are
shown in the figure given below. All the figures shown below have the
input and output signals in square waves, the same procedure can be
used for sinusoidal inputs. In fact, one approach to the analysis of
clamping networks with sinusoidal inputs is to replace the sinusoidal wave
signal by a square wave of the same peak values. The resulting output
will then form an envelope for the sinusoidal response, as illustrated in
figure (g) for a network appearing in figure (f). The diodes have been
assumed to be ideal and 5 RC » T/2 in drawing the output waveforms.
Applications of clamping circuits
 They find some applications in sonar and radar testing
 Used as voltage doublers
 They are used to remove distortions in a circuit
 Used in video processing equipment like TV
This clipping of the input signal produces an output waveform that resembles
a flattened version of the input. For example, the half-wave rectifier is a clipper
circuit, since all voltages below zero are eliminated.
But Diode Clipping Circuits can be used a variety of applications to modify
an input waveform using signal and Schottky diodes or to provide over-voltage
protection using zener diodes to ensure that the output voltage never exceeds
a certain level protecting the circuit from high voltage spikes. Then diode
clipping circuits can be used in voltage limiting applications.
We saw in the Signal Diodes tutorial that when a diode is forward biased it
allows current to pass through itself clamping the voltage. When the diode is
reverse biased, no current flows through it and the voltage across its terminals
is unaffected, and this is the basic operation of the diode clipping circuit.
Although the input voltage to diode clipping circuits can have any waveform
shape, we will assume here that the input voltage is sinusoidal. Consider the
circuits below.

Positive Diode Clipping Circuits

In this diode clipping circuit, the diode is forward biased (anode more positive
than cathode) during the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input waveform.
For the diode to become forward biased, it must have the input voltage
magnitude greater than +0.7 volts (0.3 volts for a germanium diode).
When this happens the diodes begins to conduct and holds the voltage across
itself constant at 0.7V until the sinusoidal waveform falls below this value.
Thus the output voltage which is taken across the diode can never exceed 0.7
volts during the positive half cycle.
During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased (cathode more
positive than anode) blocking current flow through itself and as a result has no
effect on the negative half of the sinusoidal voltage which passes to the load
unaltered. Thus the diode limits the positive half of the input waveform and is
known as a positive clipper circuit.

Negative Diode Clipping Circuits

Here the reverse is true. The diode is forward biased during the negative half
cycle of the sinusoidal waveform and limits or clips it to –0.7 volts while
allowing the positive half cycle to pass unaltered when reverse biased. As the
diode limits the negative half cycle of the input voltage it is therefore called a
negative clipper circuit.

Power MOSFET Basics, Working Principle

and Applications
July 23, 2019 By Dave Leave a Comment
 Power MOSFET

The Power MOSFET is a type of MOSFET. The operating principle of power MOSFET
is similar to the general MOSFET. The power MOSFETS are very special to handle the
high level of powers. It shows the high switching speed and by comparing with the
normal MOSFET, the power MOSFET will work better. The power MOSFETs is widely
used in the n-channel enhancement mode, p-channel enhancement mode, and in the
nature of n-channel depletion mode. Here we have explained about the N-channel
power MOSFET. The design of power MOSFET was made by using the CMOS
technology and also used for development of manufacturing the integrated circuits in
the 1970s.

What is a Power MOSFET?

A power MOSFET is a special type of metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor.
It is specially designed to handle high-level powers. The power MOSFET’s are
constructed in a V configuration. Therefore, it is also called as V-MOSFET, VFET. The
symbols of N- channel & P- channel power MOSFET are shown in the below figure.

Basic Statures of Power MOSFET

There is three basic status in the power MOSFET which is following.

 On sate resistance
 Breakdown voltage
 Body diode

On State Resistance

If the power MOSFET is in ON sate, then it produces the resistive behavior in-between
the drain & source terminals. We can see in the following figure, that the resistance is
the sum of many elementary contributions. The RS resistance is the source resistance.
It will show all resistance between the source terminals of the package to the channel of
the MOSFET.

On State Resistance

The Rch resistance is the channel resistance and this resistance is inversely
proportional to the channel width & for a given die size, to the channel density. This
resistance is very important contributors to the RDSon of the low voltage MOSFET. The
intensive work has done to reduce their cell size with respect to increase the channel
density.

The access resistance is represented by the Ra. The access resistance shows the
resistance of the epitaxial zone directly to the gate electrode. The current direction is
changed from the channel to the vertical.

RJFET is the detrimental effect of the cell size reduction. The P implantation is
observed from the gate of a parasitic JFET transistor and it has reduced the width of the
current flow.

Rn represents the epitaxial layer and it is used for sustaining the blocking voltage. This
resistance is directly related to the voltage rating of the device. The high voltage
MOSFET requires a thick low dependent layer which is highly resistive and a low
voltage transistor requires a thin layer with the higher doping layer which is very less
resistive. This is the main factor for the resistance of high voltage MOSFET.

The RD resistance is the equivalent of resistance of the RS for the drain. The RD
resistance, represent the transistor substrate and the package connections.

Break Down Voltage

The power MOSFET is equivalent to the PIN diode, if it is in the OFF state and it is
initiated by the P+ diffusion, the N- epitaxial layer and the N+ substrate. This structure is
reverse biased when it is highly nonsymmetrical structure and the space charge region
extends principally to the lightly doped side, which is the N- layers.

Even though, when the MOSFET is in the ON state, there is a no function of the N-
layers. Moreover, it is lightly doped rejoin, intrinsic resistivity is non-negligible and it is
added to the MOSFET ON- state drain to source resistance.

Break Down Voltage

There are two important parameters to run both the breakdown voltage and the RDSon
of the transistor, which is the doping level and the thickness of the N- epitaxial layer. If
the layer is thicker, it has low doping level and the breakdown voltage is high. Similarly,
thicker the layer, it has the high doping level and the radon is low. Hence we can
observe that there is a trade-off in the design of the MOSFET, between the voltage
rating and the ON state resistance.

Body Diode
The body diode can be seen in the following figure that the source metallization is
connected to both the N+ and P implantations. Even though the basic principle of the
MOSFET requires only that the source should be connected to the N+ zone. Thus, this
would result in a floating P zone between the N-doped source and drain. It is equivalent
to an NPN transistor with a nonconnected base. Under some conditions like high drain
current, in the order of the same volts of an on-state drain to source voltage, this
parasitic transistor of NPN should be triggered and make the MOSFET uncontrollable.

Body Diode

The connections of the P implantation to the source metallization short the base
terminal of the transistor parasitic to its emitter and it prevents the latching. Hence this
solution creates a diode between the cathode & anode of the MOSFET and the current
blocks in one direction.

For inductive loads, the body diodes utilize the freewheeling diodes in the configuration
of H Bridge & half bridge. Generally, these diodes will have a high forward voltage drop,
the current is high. They are sufficient in many applications like reducing part count.

Working of Power MOSFET and Characteristics

The construction of the power MOSFET is in V-configurations, as we can see in the

following figure. Thus the device is also called as the V-MOSFET or V-FET. The V- the
shape of power MOSFET is cut to penetrate from the device surface is almost to the N+
substrate to the N+, P, and N – layers. The N+ layer is the heavily doped layer with a
low resistive material and the N- layer is a lightly doped layer with the high resistance
region.
 N – Channel Power MOSFET

Both the horizontal and the V cut surface are covered by the silicon dioxide dielectric
layer and the insulated gate metal film is deposited on the SiO2 in the V shape. The
source terminal contacts with the both N+ and P- layers through the SiO2 layer. The
drain terminal of this device is N+.

The V-MOSFET is an E-mode FET and there is no exists of the channel in between the
drain & source till the gate is positive with respect to the source. If we consider the gate
is positive with respect to the source, then there is a formation of the N-type channel
which is close to the gate and it is in the case of the E-MOSFET. In the case of E-
MOSFET, the N-type channel provides the vertical path for the charge carriers. To flow
between the drain and source terminals. If the VGS is zero or negative, then there is no
channel of presence and the drain current is zero.

The following figures show the drain & transfer characteristics for the enhancement
mode of N-channel power MOSFET is similar to the E-MOSFET. If there is an increase
in the gate voltage then the channel resistance is reduced, therefore the drain current ID
is increased. Hence the drain current ID is controlled by the gate voltage control. So that
for a given level of VGS, ID is remaining constant through a wide range of VDS levels.
 Transfer & Drain characteristics

The channel length of the power MOSFET is in the diffusion process, but in the
MOSFET the channel length is in the dimensions of the photographic masks employed
in the diffusion process. By controlling the doping density and diffusion time, the
channel length will become shorter. The shorter channels will give, the more current
densities which will contribute again to larger power dissipation. It also allows a larger
transconductance gm to be attained in the V-FET.

In the geometry of power MOSFET, there is an important factor which is the presence of
lightly doped, N- epitaxial layer which is close to the N+ substrate. If the VGS is at zero
or negative, then the drain is positive with respect to the source and there is a reverse
biased between the P- layer & N- layer. At the junction the depletion region penetrates
into the N- layer, therefore it punch-through the drain to the source are avoided. Hence,
relatively high VDS are applied without any danger of device breakdown.

In the power MOSFET, there is available of P-channel. The characteristics are similar to
the N-channel MOSFET. The direction of the current and voltage polarities are in
reverse direction.

MOSFET Power Amplifier

There are different types of MOSFET power amplifiers like 300W MOSFET power
amplifier, 240W MOSFET power amplifier, 160W MOSFET power amplifier and 100W
MOSFET power MOSFET amplifier. But here we are explaining about the 100W
MOSFET power amplifier with its circuit.

100W MOSFET Power Amplifier Circuit Operation

The circuit operation of 100w MOSFET amplifier consists of PNP transistor from the
differential amplifier circuit. The AC input signal is sent to one of the transistors and the
other transistor gets the output signal from the feedback. The AC signal is a coupled to
the base terminal of the transistor Q1 with the help of the coupling capacitor and the
feedback signal. The feedback signal is fed into the base terminal of the second
transistor Q2 with the help of resistor R5 & R6. The potentiometer is used to set the
output of the amplifier.

100W MOSFET Power Amplifier Circuit Operation

The first stage differential output amplifier is fed to the second stage differential amplifier
input. In the case of the first differential amplifier, when the input voltage is more than
the feedback voltage than the input voltage of the two transistors Q3 and Q4 of second
differential amplifier differs from each other. The current mirror circuit of the transistors
is Q5 & Q6. This circuit ensures the flowing of output current in the push-pull amplifier
circuit is constant.

Thus, this circuit can be achieved because, when the collector current of transistor Q3 is
increased, the collector current of Q4 decreases is to maintain the flow of constant
current through the universal point of the emitter terminal of the transistors Q3 &Q4.
There is an equal output current in between the current mirror circuit & collector current
of the Q3 transistor. The potentiometer R12 protects the applications of DC biasing to
each MOSFET because the two MOSFETs are in the balancing to each other.

If the positive voltage is applied to the gate terminal of the Q7 transistor then it will
conduct. Correspondingly transistor Q8 will conduct for the negative threshold voltage.
To prevent the MOSFET output from the oscillating the gate resistors are used.

Applications of Power MOSFET

The power MOSFET’s are used in the power supplies

 DC to DC converters
  Low voltage motor controllers
 These are widely used in the low voltage switches which are less than the 200V

This article will give the information on the working principle of power MOSFET circuit
and its applications. We hope by reading this article you have gained some basic
knowledge and understanding about the power MOSFET. Here is the question for you,
what are the functions of the power MOSFET?