Unit 1 Our Environment

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UNIT

OUR ENVIRONMENT
Structure
1.1 Introduction 1.5 Concept of Sustainability and
Expected Learning Outcomes Sustainable Development
1.2 Concept of Environment 1.6 Multidisciplinary Nature of the
1.3 Components and Types of Environmental Studies
Environment 1.7 Importance of Environmental Studies
Components of Environment 1.8 Summary
Types of Environment 1.9 Terminal Questions
Significance of the Environment for Life 1.10 Answers
1.4 Human-Environment Relationship 1.11 Further Reading

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Earth is the only planet known for supporting life. Despite the vastness of earth, life exists
only in a very narrow zone of the earth called biosphere. Sun is the only source of energy
which enables continuous interaction among various life [Link] unit, being the first in the
course, brings out the holistic meaning of the word ‘environment’. In broad terms,
environment includes everything external to an organism that affects it, including physical as
well as living factors. The action and interactionof the physical and living factors makes a
system of relationships called ecosystem. This unit will also focus on how we as living
beings interact with other living and non-living components of the ecosystem. The concept of
sustainable development came into existence that explains symbiotic relationship between
human being and environment.
For centuries humans have considered the earth and environment as virtually unlimited
resources but subtle and gradual changes have altered our environment in many different
[Link] mention has been made of human population within the changing scenario
over the years, particularly since the industrial revolution. We hope that this unit will give you
a better understanding of the environment and its various components. This unit would also
enable you to use your intelligence and skills for managing our environment and keeping it
healthy for future generations. This unit will further explain the multi-discipilinary nature and
scope of environmental studies.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After completing the study of this unit you should be able to:
 explain the importance of environment in our life and surroundings;
 recognise the importance of the concept of sustainability and sustainable development;
 analyse the multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies; and
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 appreciate the importance and scope of environmental studies.
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1.2 CONCEPT OF ENVIRONMENT

Each and every living organism has a specific surrounding or medium with
which it continuously interacts, derives its sustenance and to which it is fully
adapted. This surrounding is the ‘natural environment’. The word ‘natural
environment’ brings to mind broad aspects of landscape, such as soil,
water, desert or mountains which can be more exactly described in terms of
physical or abiotic influences such as differences in moisture, temperature,
texture of soil, and air quality. It also includes the biological or biotic
influences in the form of microbes and animals. Thus, environment is
defined as, “the sum total of living and non-living components;
influences and events surrounding an organism”.

Let us begin by asking what is environment? Environment is derived from

French word environ which means to encircle or surround while ment
means auctioning, i.e., environment is the interaction between organism and
the nature. For humans, there are several kinds of environment such as
home environment, business environment, political environment and so on.
But we are going to discuss only about natural environment: air, water, land,
plants, animals and other organisms. Any individual in nature interacts with
its environment, influences it and in turn is influenced by it. Thus
environment is the sum total of air, water and land interrelationship among
themselves and also with the human beings, plants, animals and other
organisms. The most significant attribute of the effect of environment on life
of an organism is the interaction of environmental elements. These abiotic
and biotic factors are dynamic in nature and interact with each other in every
moment of life.

No organism can live alone without interacting with other organisms, so

each organism has other organisms as a part of its environment. You must
be aware that all animals are directly or indirectly dependent upon plants,
basically the green plants that manufacture their own food. Plants also
depend on animals for a few things such as pollination of flowers and
dispersal of fruits and seeds.

Let us try to understand the concept of environment with an example (Refer

Fig.1.1.). Can you identify the environment of a carp fish in the pond? Its
environment consists of abiotic components such as light, temperature, and
water in which nutrients, oxygen, other gases and organic matter are
dissolved. The biotic environment consists of microscopic organisms called
planktons as well as aquatic plants and animals and decomposers. The
plants are of different kinds such as floating, submerged and partly
submerged plants, and trees growing around the edge of the pond. The
animals consist of insects, worms, molluscs, tadpoles, frogs, birds and
various kinds of [Link] decomposers are the saprotrophs like bacteria
and fungi.
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Fig. 1.1: Environment of a Carp in a Pond.

Till now, you might have realised that the environment is not static. The biotic
and abiotic factors are in a flux and keep changing continuously. The
organisms can tolerate changes in environment within a certain range
called ‘range of tolerance’.

1.3 COMPONENTS AND TYPES OF

ENVIRONMENT
After discussing about the concept of environment. In this section, we will
discuss about components, types and significance of environment.

1.3.1 Components of Environment

Broadly the environment comprises of abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living)
components. Some examples of abiotic and biotic components of
environment are listed below in Table 1.1
Table 1.1: Components of Environment
Abiotic Components Biotic components
Light Plants
Precipitation Animals including humans, parasites and micro
Humidity and Water organisms
Temperature Decomposers
Atmospheric gases
Seasonal changes
Topography

The physical components set the condition for the survival of the biotic
components, which in turn take care of the maintenance of the environment.
Linkages among components of the environment are pathways for the flow of
energy and cycling of materials. For example, green plants obtain essential
resources from the physical realm – water and minerals from the soil, carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere and light energy from the sun, and manufacture
their food. Animals depend on plants and other animals for their source of 9
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food. We, the human being, in turn harvest the land and the seas for our food;
and obtain minerals and fuel from the Earth’s crust. We will learn more about
these later in this course.

1.3.2 Types of Environment

Recall the definition of the environment, and consider a fish living in a natural
pond which we have already discussed in the previous section. Its external
environment will be the water in the pond which it primarily inhabits. The
water would contain nutrients, oxygen and other organisms that the fish
requires to sustain its life. As opposed to the external environment, the body
cavity within the fish provides an internal environment quite separate from
the outside environment. The body surface act as an exchange barrier
between the internal and the external environment of the fish. The internal
environment is relatively stable as compared to the external environment.
However, illness and injury or even environment stress can upset it. But when
the cause of the disturbance is removed, the internal environment comes back
to its original condition.
The pond which the fish inhabits is its natural environment. The abiotic
factors of the pond, like light, temperature, depth, nutrients, and dissolved
gases will provide the life supporting chemical and physical factors for the fish.
The other living organisms inhabiting the pond, like bacteria, insects, worms,
molluscs, tadpoles, frogs and aquatic vegetation could be food for the fish.
Examples of such natural environments on land include forests, grasslands,
savannah and deserts. So far we have discussed only the natural environment
but there are several components of environment which are created by
humans, like crop fields, cities and industrial spaces (Fig. 1.2). These are
places made artificially by humans through planned manipulation. For

Natural Environment
Oceans, lakes/ponds,
rivers, forest,
grasslands, deserts
etc.

Human-modified
Environment
Orchards, plantations,
sanctuaries, parks, etc.

Human-made
Environment
Industries, cities, towns,
crop fields, artificial
lakes, dams, etc.

Fig. 1.2: Examples of Different Types of Environment.

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example, let us consider a city. The city environment is totally created by
human beings. One of the most important components – water is not taken
from streams directly but is first filtered, purified and then used for drinking and
other municipal purposes. The metabolic waste and garbage are not disposed
off locally but are carried for treatment or dumping to a remote place, away
from the city. Food for the people in cities often comes from rural areas. An
environment made by humans results in the consumption of excessive
amounts of materials and energy, necessitating care, supervision and
management.

1.3.3 Significance of the Environment for Life

Whatever type of environment organisms inhabit, they all need life supporting
elements for their survival. These include air that they breathe, food and water
they take in, and shelter either as natural (like caves and tree holes) or as
artificial dwellings (like houses). Environment is the only source that provides
these life supporting elements.
We make use of the land for cultivating crops. Soil provides nutrients needed
for the growth of plants. The landform determines the soil types found in any
one area and soil itself varies from place to place. Some soils are rich in
nutrients and other are lacking in them. The soils lacking nutrients need the
addition of [Link] and short term weather changes are
characterized mainly by wind, temperature, pressure and rainfall and are
determined by the properties of the atmosphere. Air in the atmosphere
provides living organisms with oxygen, without which survival of the most of
the living organisms will be threatened.

SAQ 1
Answer the below given question within 30 words.
i) Describe the significance of physical components in an environment.
ii) Explain in brief the significance of the environment for life.

1.4 HUMAN - ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIP

As we know from the previous section that all living beings are dependent
upon their immediate surroundings for their sustenance and survival. There
are two distinct situations observed if we trace the history of human
civilization. The first situation is that human being adjusted or adapted to the
prevailing environmental conditions. Those who could not adapt or adjust
perished. Similar situations can be observed amongst plants and animals
also. As human civilization progress, people developed knowledge, skill and
technology to subjugate nature. This happened faster after renaissance and
Industrial revolution. It has improved standard of living as well as made human
life comfortable. However, this has leads to irreparable damage of environment
and threat to the human society as well as survival of the planet earth.
Therefore, it has been realized that there should be a balance between
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development and protection of environment. This approach is best expressed
as ‘sustainable development’ which we will discuss in detail in the next section.
But now, let us consider the various approaches to human-environment
relationship i.e. determinism, possibilism and environmentalism.
Determinism: This concept was developed by German Geographer
Friedrich Ratzel, which was further expanded by Ellsworth Huntington. This
approach is based on the concept of ‘nature controls human’ or ‘earth made
human’. This is also known as environmental determinism. According to this
approach, human being is largely influenced by nature. In fact, the
determinism states that human being is subordinate to natural environment
because all aspects of human life such as physical (health and well-being),
social, economic, political, ethical and aesthetic not only depend on but are
dominantly controlled by the physical environment.
Possibilism: This term was coined by the French historian, Lucien Febvre.
Possibilism approach in the study of human-environment relationship is an
offshoot of the criticism of environmental determinism. The evolution of
such human-environment relationship was influenced by the advancement
of science and technology. Possibilism indicates that the physical
environment is passive and human being is the active agent at liberty to
choose between wide ranges of environmental possibilities. According to
this apporach, the pattern of human activity is the result of the initiative and
mobility of human being operating within the natural framework. However, it
was agreed upon by the possibilists that humans lack the abilities to fully
tame the nature and is not always victorious over it. As a result of the above,
some scientists and academics vouched for ‘cooperation with nature’ or
‘mutual interaction’ between human being and environment.
Environmentalism or Ecological Approach: This approach is based upon
the basic principle of ecology, which is the study of mutual interaction
between organisms and physical environment on the one hand, and the
interaction among the organisms on the other in a given ecosystem. This
approach describes human being as an integral part of nature or
environment. Human being as the most skilled and intelligent has a unique
role to play in maintaining a natural environment as healthy and productive
as it should be. This approach emphasizes on wise and restrained use of
natural resources and application of appropriate environmental
management programmes, policies and strategies keeping in view certain
basic principles of ecology so that already depleted natural resources are
replenished, and health and productivity of the nature is restored.
The ecological approach is best reflected in the concept of sustainable
development which we will discuss in the following section.

SAQ 2
Fill in the blanks with suitable words:
i) The approach of determinism is based on the concept of .....................
12 ............... or ............................ .
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ii) Possibilism indicates that the physical environment is ...............................
and human being is the .................................. agent at liberty to choose
between wide ranges of environmental possibilities.
iii) Environmentalism emphasizes on ........................................ and ..........
................................. use of natural resources.

1.5 CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABILITY AND

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The concept of Sustainable Development was formally defined in the report
titled “Our Common Future”. This report was an outcome of deliberation of a
group constituted by World Commission on Environment and Development
(WCED) and chaired by the then Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem
Brundtlandt. Brundtlandt Commission defined sustainable development as the
development that involves “…meeting the need of present generation
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs.” This definition of sustainable development initiated a lot of
debate. The scientists were of the opinion that the term ‘need’ and
‘development’ has not been defined properly in the report. Need can not be
generalized universally. It varies from place to place and person to person.
Similarly, development was also not properly defined. The report explains
development as something people do to improve their lives. Therefore, it
becomes amenable to varied interpretations. A more precise definition with
clearly spelt-out goals remains elusive.

Herman Daly, an ecological economist, referred to sustainable development

as an “oxymoron”. Do you know what an Oxymoron is? Oxymoron is a figure
of speech that combines two usually contradictory terms into a compressed
paradox (e.g. bitter sweet, pretty ugly). The definition of ‘development’ is not
precise enough to make it more in favour of nature conservation than on
building roads, factories, infrastructure etc. The Oxford dictionary meaning of
development is “a stage or advancement”.

On the other hand, “sustainability” is the capacity to endure. The word

“sustainability” is derived from the latin “sustinere” (tenere = to hold; sus= up).
Dictionaries provide more than ten meanings for sustain, the main ones being
to “maintain”, “support”, or “endure”. Further more, as has been pointed out by
Michael Redclift the sustainability discussion has gradually, over the years,
moved almost imperceptibly away from “human needs” to “human rights”.
Therefore, Sustainability refers to a process which can be continued
indefinitely without depleting the resource base on which it depends.
Therefore, it is the practical goal towards which our interaction with the natural
world should be directed. The guiding principles of sustainability cut across
ecological, economic, social and cultural dimensions.

The concept of sustainable development is now well accepted at international,

national and local levels. This has been emerging as a strong alternative
model of development after a long debate and discussion since Rio Summit in 13
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1992. Sustainable development means different things to different people.
There are three important disciplines traditionally concerned with the
processes involved in conceptualizing sustainable development. The discipline
of economics is mainly concerned with growth, efficiency and the optimum
use of resources. On the other hand, sociologists mainly focus on human
needs and on concepts like equity, empowerment and social cohesion.
Ecologists show their greatest concern for preserving natural systems, for
living within the carrying capacity of the environment, and for dealing efficiently
with pollution. Today this sectarian approach to development adopted by the
above mentioned disciplines have been rejected. Now, it has been argued that
sustainable development will be achieved where the concerns of these three
groups are addressed in a holistic manner, as shown in Fig. 1.3.

Fig. 1.3: Three Pillars of Sustainable Development.

It has been said that sustainable development is an ideal which no societies

today have achieved anything resembling it. Nevertheless, as with justice,
equality, and freedom, it is important to uphold sustainable development as an
ideal - a goal toward which all human societies need to be moving. For
example, policies and actions that reduce infant mortality, increase the
availability of family planning, improve the air quality, provide more abundant
and pure water, preserve and protect natural ecosystems, reduce soil erosion
and reduce the release of toxic chemicals to the environment, all movea
society in the right direction – toward a sustainable future.
To achieve this desired goal, societies have to make certain transitions which
are very much essential. There is a broad consensus on the following
transition to make future societies:
 A demographic transition: from a continually growing population to one
that is stable.
 A resource transition to an economy that is not solely obsessed with
growth, rather relies more on nature’s income and protects ecosystem
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 A technological transition from pollution-intensive economic production
to environment friendly processes.
 A political/sociological transition
 A community transition
Priority Areas for Achieving Sustainable Development
1. Slow Down Population Growth: This is essential for addressing all the
other priority areas.
2. Reduce Poverty, Inequality and Third World Debt: Improving health,
longevity and literacy, increasing employment etc. This is important for
curbing the loss of species, the extent of land degradation and water
pollution.
3. Make Agriculture Sustainable: This includes reducing soil erosion and
decreasing the use of harmful agricultural practices. This is important for
curbing the loss of biodiversity, land degradation and pollution.
4. Protect Forests and other Habitats: This includes reforestation and
afforestation of wastelands, protection of other living resources, control
greenhouse gases and ozone layer depletion. This is important for
reducing air pollution, land degradation, depletion of energy and minerals
5. Make Water and Energy Use Sustainable: This includes improved
energy efficiency, conserving energy and developing renewable energy
resources. This is important for reducing air pollution, land degradation,
depletion of energy and minerals.
6. Make Water Use Sustainable: This includes improving the efficiency of
water use and protecting water quality. This is important for curbing water
pollution and depletion and land degradation.
7. Reduce Waste Generation: This includes improving production
processes, waste treatment and recycling processes. This is important
for reducing air and water pollution and energy, mineral and water
depletion.

SAQ 3
i) Define the term ‘‘Sustainability’’.
ii) Why is it important to uphold sustainable development as an ideal?

1.6 MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF THE

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
Till now, you must have realised that the environment affects us in several
ways, for example, the water we consume, the air we breathe, the climatic
conditions in which we live, and surrounding where we live all have effects on
us. In natural conditions usually living organisms keep a balance with their
environment. Humans in many ways have personalized the environment 15
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according to their need with the help of skill and science, but in doing so we
have disrupted the fragile intricately woven web of life and life supporting
systems. All these interactions with environment as a whole are subjects of
environmental [Link],environmental studies contribute a branch of
study of inherent or induced changes in the environment, and their effect on
living beings.
Environmental studies cover a large domain of knowledge which deals with
every concern that affects an organism. From human angle, this means it is
an applied science which seeks all possible answers to make human
civilization sustainable on the earth with all its limited resources. It includes
not only the study of physical and biological characters of the environment but
also economic, social, cultural and even political and legal aspects of the
environment. Various issues such as clean and safe drinking water, clean and
fresh air, clean living conditions, productive land, good quality foodstuff and
sustainable development are dealt with in environmental studies.
The importance of environmental studies cannot be disputed. The need for
sustainable development is a key to the future of humankind. Continuing
problems of pollution, loss of forest and bio-diversity, solid waste disposal,
degradation of environment, issues like global warming and climate change,
the depletion of ozone layer and loss of biodiversity have made everyone
aware of environmental issues. The United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development held in Rio de Janerio in 1992 and World
Summit on Sustainable Development at Johannesburg in 2002 have drawn the
attention of people around the globe to the deteriorating condition of our
environment. This has been again reaffirmed by United Nations by adopting
seventeen Sustainable Development Goals in the year 2015. It has been
decided that these seventeen goals would be achieved in the next fifteen years
i.e. 2016-2030.
Box 1.1: Sustainable Development Goals
1. No Poverty
2. Zero Hunger
3. Good Health and Wellbeing
4. Quality Education
5. Gender Equality
6. Clean Water and Sanitation
7. Affordable and Clean Energy
8. Decent Work and Economic Growth
9. Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
10. Reduced Inequalities
11. Sustainable Cities and Communities
12. Responsible Consumption and Production
13 Climate Action
14. Life Below Water
15. Life on Land
16. Peace, Justice and Strong Institution
17. Partnership for the Goals.
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India is rich in biodiversity which provides various resources for people. Only
about 1.7 million living organisms have been described and named globally.
Still many more remain to be identified and described. Attempts are made to
conserve them in ex-situ(outside their natural habitat) and in-situ(in their
natural habitat situations). You will learn about in-situand ex-situ conservation
in Unit [Link] of habitats, over-use of energy resources and
environmental pollution has been found to be responsible for the loss of a
large number of life-forms. It is feared that a large proportion of life on earth
may get wiped out in the near future.
These issues are extensively addressed in the next thirteen units of this
course both at global as well as national level.

1.7 IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL

STUDIES
The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and
conservation of environment. At present, due to our aggressive consumerist
lifestyle and carbon intensive industrial development we have created a large
number of environment issues both in terms of magnitude, intensity and
complexity at local, regional and global level. We shall study about these
issues and suggestive measures for mitigation in the Environment Studies. Let
us discuss major environmental as issues in the following paragraphs:
1. Environmental issues are of international importance: It has now
been well recognised that environment issues like global warming,
climate change, ozone layer depletion, acid rain, marine pollution and loss
of biodiversity are not merely national issues but are global issues and
hence must be tackled with international efforts and cooperation.
2. Emergence of problems in the wake of modernisation and
development: Development in the modern period has given birth to
industrialisation, urbanization, modern transportationsystems, Agriculture,
Housing etc. When the West developed, it did so perhaps in ignorance of
the environmental impact of its activities. Evidently such a path is neither
practicable nor desirable. The developing world now faces the challenge
of developing without environmental degradation.
3. Explosive increase in population: World census reflects that one in
every seven persons in this planet lives in [Link] with 16 per cent
of the world’s population and only 2.4 per cent of its land area,there is a
heavy pressure on the natural resources including land. This emphasizes
on the need for efficient management of natural resources for the benefits
of all.
4. Need for an alternative solution: It is essential, especially for
developing countries to find alternative paths to developmental goal. Such
a goal would need to be distinct from the developed world in the manner
that would conserve natural resources and avoid wasteful consumption.
5. Need for wise planning of development: Resources withdrawal,
processing and use of theproducts have all to be synchronised with the 17
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ecological cycles in any plan of development. Our actions should be
planned for the sustenance of the environment and development.

SAQ 4
i) Differentiate between in-situ and ex-situ conservation.
ii) What should be kept in mind while planning for alternative solution in
developing countries for the sustenance of environment and
development?

1.8 SUMMARY
 Environment is defined as”the sum total of living and non-living
components; influences and events surrounding an organism”. Broadly
the environment comprises of abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living)
components.
 Brundtlandt Commission define sustainable development as the
development that provides for “…meeting the need of present generation
without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own
needs.”

 It has been said that sustainable development is an ideal which no

societies have been able to achieve. Nevertheless, as with justice,
equality, and freedom, it is important to uphold sustainable
development as an ideal- a goal toward which all human societies
need to be moving.

 Sustainability refers to a process which can be continued indefinitely

without depleting the resource base on which it depends. Therefore, it is
the practical goal towards which our interaction with the natural world
should be working. The guiding principles of sustainability cut across
ecological, economic, social and cultural dimensions and there are
obvious trade-offs.

 The environment studies enlighten us about the importance of protection

and conservation of environment. At present, due to our aggressive
consumerist lifestyle and carbon intensive industrial development, we
have created a large number of environment issues both in terms of
magnitude, intensity and complexity at local, regional and global level. As
a result, the quality of life and even survival of humankind on earth are
threatened. We study about these issues and suggestive measures for
mitigation in the Environment Studies.

1.9 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What is environment? Explain various components of environment with
18 suitable examples.
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2. Analyse human-environment relationship over time and space.

3. Describe in detail priority areas required for achieving sustainable

development.

4. Explain in detail the importance of environmental studies.

1.10 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1. i) The physical components set the condition for the survival of the
biotic components.

ii) Environment provides all life supporting elements which include air to
breathe, food we eat and water we drink, and shelter either as natural
like caves and tree holes or material for the construction of as
artificial dwellings.

2 i) nature controls human, earth made human

ii) Passive, active
iii) wise, restrained
3. i) Sustainability refers to a process which can be continued indefinitely
without depleting the resource base on which it depends.
ii) A goal toward which all human societies need to be moving.
4. i) In-situ refers to conservation in their natural habitat situations.
whereas ex-situ refers to conservation outside their natural habitat.
ii) While planning for alternative solution in developing countries for the
sustenance of environment and development need to be distinct
from the developed world in the manner that would conserve natural
resources and avoid wasteful consumption.

Terminal Questions
1. Environment is defined as the sum total of living and non-living
components; influences and events surrounding an organism. It has two
components i.e. biotic and abiotic. Biotic components include all living
organisms whereas abiotic component includes non-living things.
Examples of abiotic components are topography, light, precipitation,
humidity & water, temperature, atmospheric gases, seasonal changes
whereas biotic components include plant, animals including humans,
parasites and micro-organisms and decomposers.
2. Human-environment relationship can be grouped under three categories
i.e. determinism, possibilism and environmentalism. Determinism states
that human being is subordinate to natural environment because all
aspects of human life are dominantly controlled by the physical
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environment. Possibilism indicates that the physical environment is

passive and human being is the active agent at liberty to choose between
wide ranges of environmental [Link] his approach
emphasizes on wise and restrained use of natural resources and
application of appropriate environmental management programmes,
policies and strategies keeping in view certain basic principles of ecology
so that already depleted natural resources are replenished, and health
and productivity of the nature is restored.
3. Priority areas required for achieving sustainable development are slow
down population growth;reduce poverty, inequalityand Third World
debt;make agriculture sustainable;protect forest and other habitats;make
water and energy use sustainable;reduce waste generation.
4. Importance of environmental studies are as follows: (i) Environment
issues are of international importance; (ii) Emergence of problems in the
wake of modernisation and development; (iii) explosive increase in
population; (iv) need for an alternative solution; and (v) need for wise
planning of development Any four)

1.11 FURTHER READING

1. Bharucha, E. (2005) Textbook of Environmental Studies for
Undergraduate Courses, Hyderabad: Universities Press (India) Private
Limited.
2. Botkin, D. B. & Keler, E. A. 8th Ed. (2011) Environmental Science: Earth
as a Living Planet, New Delhi: Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.
3. Kaushik, A. 2nd Ed. (2004) Environmental Studies, New Delhi: New Age
International (P) Limited.
4. Rajagopalan, R. 3rd Ed. (2015) Environmental Studies, New Delhi: Oxford
University Press.
5. Redy, M. A. (2007) Text Book of Environmental Science and Technology,
Hyderabad: BS Publications.
6. Wright, R. T. (2008) Environmental Science: Towards a Sustainable
Future, New Delhi: PHL Learning Private Ltd.

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