Chapter 4

Integrated Circuits
4.1 Logic Circuits
A logic circuit is a circuit that executes a processing or controlling function in a computer. This
circuit implements logical operations on information to process it. A logic gate is a device that
acts as a building block for digital circuits. They perform basic logical functions that are
fundamental to digital circuits. Most electronic devices we use today will have some form of
logic gates in them. For example, logic gates can be used in technologies such as smartphones,
tablets or within memory devices.

4.1.1 Inverter or NOT logic gate

A “NOT” gate has only one input, it reverses the logic state. If the input is the output will be 0
and if the input is 0 the output will be 1. (Boolean expression: ̅)

Input (A) Output (Q)

0 1
1 0
'NOT' truth table

4.1.2 AND logic gate

The AND logic gate performs as an “AND” operation. The output is true “1” when all the inputs
are true otherwise output is false “0” .(Boolean expression: )

A B Q
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
'AND' truth table

4.1.3 NAND logic gate

The NAND logic gate is and “AND” gate with a “NOT” at the output. (Boolean expression:
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ )
 A B Q
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
'NAND' truth table

4.1.4 OR logic gate

This logic gate performs the “OR” operation, the output is true if any of the inputs is true.
(Boolean expression: )

A B Q
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
‘OR’ truth table

4.1.5 NOR logic gate

The NOR logic gate is and “OR” gate with a “NOT” at the output. (Boolean expression:
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ )

A B Q
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
'NOR' truth table

4.1.6XOR logic gate

The XOR gate or as known Exclusive OR has an output of 1 if the number oif input „1‟s is odd
otherwise the output will be „0‟. (Boolean expression: )

A B Q
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Exercise: write the Boolean expression for each circuit and fill its truth table.

1)

2)

3)

4)
4.2 Operational Amplifiers
The operational amplifier (Op-Amp) is an electronic unit that behaves as a voltage-controlled
voltage source. It is an active circuit element designed to perform mathematical operations a s
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, differentiation and integration. The basic diagram
of an op amp is shown below.

A typical op amp has 8 pins; the most used are the 741 , an ideal op amp. The properties of an
ideal op-amp are as follows:

 Infinite open loop gain.

 Infinite input resistance.
 Zero output resistance.
 Currents into both input terminals are zero.
 Voltages at input terminals (with respect to ground) are equal.

4.2.1 Inverting Amplifier

The inverting amplifier reverses the polarity of the input signal while amplifying it. For these
amplifiers the non-inverting input is usually grounded.
4.2.2 Non-inverting Amplifier

For this amplifier the input is applied directly at the non-inverting input terminal; this amplifier
is designed to provide a positive voltage gain.

4.2.3 Voltage Follower

This is also known as unity-gain non inverting amplifier. The voltage gain is 1. This is usually
used to isolate a low resistance load from a high output resistance source.

4.2.4 Summing Amplifier

A summing amplifier is an op amp circuit that combines several inputs and produces an output
that is the weighed sum of the inputs.
 (∑ )
where n represents the input.

4.2.5 Differential amplifier

A differential amplifier is a device that amplifies the difference between two inputs.

( ⁄ )
( ⁄ )
4.2.6 Integrator

As its name implies, the Op-amp Integrator is an operational amplifier circuit that performs the
mathematical operation of Integration, that is we can cause the output to respond to changes in
the input voltage over time as the op-amp integrator produces an output voltage which is
proportional to the integral of the input voltage.
In other words the magnitude of the output signal is determined by the length of time a voltage is
present at its input as the current through the feedback loop charges or discharges the capacitor
as the required negative feedback occurs through the capacitor.

4.3 Op-amp Comparator circuits

The Op-amp comparator compares one analogue voltage level with another analogue voltage
level, or some preset reference voltage, VREF and produces an output signal based on this voltage
comparison. In other words, the op-amp voltage comparator compares the magnitudes of two
voltage inputs and determines which is the largest of the two.

4.3.1 Positive voltage comparator (Non-inverting)

The basic configuration for the positive voltage comparator, also known as a non-inverting
comparator circuit detects when the input signal, VIN is ABOVE or more positive than the
reference voltage, VREF producing an output at VOUT which is HIGH as shown.
4.3.2 Negative voltage comparator (Inverting)

The basic configuration for the negative voltage comparator, also known as an inverting
comparator circuit detects when the input signal, VIN is BELOW or more negative than the
reference voltage, VREF producing an output at VOUT which is HIGH as shown.

4.4 Positive Feedback vs Negative Feedback

The advantages of negative feedback over positive feedback are as follows:

 stabilizes gain of amplifier.
 Input resistance increases for certain configurations.
 Output resistance decreases for certain configurations.
 Operating point is stabilized.
 It is employed in various applications such as electronic amplifiers, regulated power
supplies, wideband amplifiers etc.

The disadvantages of negative feedback over positive feedback are as follows:

 Reduction in gain
 Reduction in input resistance in case of current shunt and voltage shunt type amplifiers.
 Increase in output resistance in case of current series and current shunt feedback
amplifiers.
4.5 Printed Circuit Boards
A Printed Circuit Board (PCB) is a Sheet of Insulating Material such as Fiberglass, with Metallic
Circuit or Track Printed or Etched on it for Electrical Conductivity. A PCB is found in almost all
electronic products that we use in our daily life – Mobile Phone, Tablet, TV, Computer, Laptop,
Keyboard, Mouse, Military Weapons, Airplane, Satellite etc.

Besides keeping the components in place, its purpose of a PCB is to provide electrical
connections between the components mounted on it. As electronic devices have become more
complex, and require more components, the PCB has become more populated, and dense with
wiring and components.

Rigid, flexible and rigid flex PCBs are commonly employed in the aerospace industry for
instrument panels, dashboards, flight controls, flight management and safety systems. The
growing number of advances in aerospace technology have increased the need for smaller, more
complex PCBs for use in aircraft, satellites, drones, and other aerospace electronics. Flexible and
rigid flex circuits offer exceptional durability and mission survivability due to the elimination of
connectors.

The PCB is formed of two sides, the top used as the component surface and the bottom used as
the component soldering surface. The substrate of the board itself is an insulating and non-
flexible material. The thin wires that are visible on the surface of the board are part of a copper
foil that initially covered the whole board.

Components are mounted on board either by through hole, where it is mounted on top
side of the board and the legs are soldered on the opposite side or are soldered to the
conductor pattern.