A variable, as the name implies, is something which varies.

This is the simplest and the broadest way of

defining a variable. However, a behavioural scientist attempts to define a variable more precisely and

specifically. From his point of view, variables may be defined as those attributes of objects, events, things

and beings, which can be measured. In other words, variables are the characteristics or conditions that are

manipulated, controlled or observed by the experimenter.

Variables have been classified in three different ways.

(i) From the viewpoint of causation

(ii) From the viewpoint of the design of study

(iii) From the viewpoint of unit of measurement

The terms 'dependent variable' and 'independent variable' have been borrowed from the field of

mathematics in behavioural researches. The classification of variables into dependent and independent is

frequently employed in experimental research. The dependent variable (DV) is defined as one about

which the experimenter makes a prediction. The independent variable (IV) is defined as one which is

manipulated, measured and selected by the experimenter for the purpose of producing observable changes

in the behavioural measure (or DV). In other words, the independent variable is the variable on the basis

of which the prediction about the DV is made.

An example may illustrate the distinction between the IV and the DV. Suppose the experimenter wants to

study the effect of teaching methods upon the classroom achievement of pupils. For this purpose, he may

employ three methods of teaching, say, A, B and C and may teach the same group of pupils by these three

methods and subsequently, the achievement may be measured or predicted. Teaching methods constitute

the example of the IV and the classroom achievement constitutes the example of the DV.

Sometimes in the experiment, a variable is left uncontrolled and is unintentionally allowed to vary with

independent variable. Such a variable is called also called intervening variable. For example, suppose the
researcher is to assess the effectiveness of the lecture method vs. laboratory demonstration method in

acquiring knowledge of fundamentals of statistics. There may be two equivalent groups of students. One

group is lectured by Professor A and the other group with laboratory demonstration is taught by Professor

B. Subsequently, both groups receive the same final examination and their performances are compared.

Statistical analysis reveals that students taught by Professor B excel in their performance as compared to

the students taught by Professor A. Can the researcher conclude that method of laboratory demonstration

is better than the method of lecture? The answer is emphatically no. The method of instruction is not the

only way the groups differ in terms of how they have been treated. The instructor (Professor) was allowed

to vary along with the method of instruction. It might be that Professor B is a better instructor, motivates

students properly and can explain concepts in understandable terms. On the other hand, Professor A might

be less experienced. That is, the difference between groups in performance might be due to the different

instructors rather than the different treatments. It is difficult to be sure which interpretation is correct.

One important thing related to the selection and measurement of dependent variable is that of floor and

ceiling effect. A floor effect is said to have occurred where a null result occurs because majority of

subjects score at the very bottom end of the scale. Such an effect usually emerges when the task is too

difficult for the subjects.

For example, if in any experiment, purpose is to compare people's sensitivity to lights of different colours

but all the given colours are below the threshold, no meaningful data will be obtained. This illustrates

floor effect.

Ceiling affects are the opposite of floor effects and are said to have occurred when subjects score close to

the top of the scale simply because the task was too easy. Continuing with the same example, if all the

coloured lights are clearly visible because they are bright, the task would be far easy (means difficult) for

the subjects and therefore, ceiling effect will occur. These effects must be prevented and this can be

readily done through pilot study that can check the appropriateness of the subject pool and variables

before carrying out the experiment proper.

Extraneous variable – several other factors operating in a real-life situation may affect changes in the

dependent variable. These factors, not measured in the study, may increase or decrease the magnitude or

strength of the relationship between independent and dependent variables.

Suppose you want to study the relationship between fertility and mortality. Your aim is to explore what

happens to fertility when mortality declines. The history of demographic transition has shown that a

reduction in the fertility level follows a decline in the mortality level, though the time taken to attain the

same level of reduction in fertility varied markedly from country to country. As such, there is no direct

relationship between fertility and mortality. With the reduction in mortality, fertility will decline only if

people attempt to limit their family size. History has shown that for a multiplicity of reasons (the

discussion of which is beyond the scope of this book) people have used one method or another to control

their fertility, resulting in lower fertility levels. It is thus the intervention of contraceptive methods that

completes the relationship: the greater the use of contraceptives, the greater the decline in the fertility

level and the sooner the adoption of contraceptive methods by people, the sooner the decline. The extent

of the use of contraceptives is also affected by a number of other factors, for example attitudes towards

contraception, level of education, socioeconomic status and age, religion, and provision and quality of

health services. These are classified as extraneous variables.

As it has been said above, the IV is manipulated by the experimenter and its effect is examined upon the

DV. Some experts, depending upon the mode of manipulation, have tried to divide the IV into Type-E

independent variable and Type-S independent variable. Type-E independent variable is one which is

directly or experimentally manipulated by the experimenter, and Type-S independent variable is one

which is manipulated through the process of selection only. Such variables are difficult to manipulate

experimentally or directly. An example may illustrate the distinction between the Type-E and Type-S

independent variable. Suppose the experimenter wants to study the effect of temperature upon the rate of

production in an industry. Here the IV is the temperature and the DV is the rate of production. He may

manipulate the temperature by dividing it into three categories-high, medium and low-and examine its

effect upon the rate of production. Here the temperature is being directly manipulated by the experimenter

and hence, it constitutes the example of Type-E independent variable.

Depending upon the nature of variables, the independent variables may be classified into three categories:

task variables, environmental variables and subject variables.

Task Variables

The task variables refer to those characteristics which are associated with a behavioural task presented to

the subject. It includes the physical characteristics of the apparatus as well as many features of the task

procedures. There are different types of apparatus used in an experiment. Some are simple and some

complex. The simplicity or complexity of the apparatus is likely to produce a change in the behavioural

measure. When, for example, the number of wrong paths (blind alleys) in a particular maze is increased,

the process of learning or traversing the maze will be a difficult task for the subject. Likewise, when

several more or less similar coloured lights are added to a study of complex reaction time, the reaction

time is likely to be longer.

Environmental Variables
Environmental variables refer to those characteristics of the environment, which are not the physical parts

of the task as such, but tend to produce changes in the behavioural measures. Noise, temperature, levels of

illumination and time of the day are examples of environmental variables. Suppose, for example, that the

investigator wants to study how reading speed is influenced by the degree of vagueness in handwriting. It

is likely that apart from the degree of vagueness, the reading speed may be influenced by the levels of

illumination and noise occurring at the time of reading the materials. The intensity of the light and noise

constitutes the example of the enviornmental variables because the variations in the intensity of the light

and noise also tend to produce changes in the reading speed. Here intensity of light and that of sound are

not the physical parts of the task (handwriting) but tend to produce changes in the behavioural measures

(relating speed).

Subject Variables

Subject variables refer to those characteristics of the subjects which are likely to produce changes in the

behavioural measures. Sex, age, weight, anxiety, intelligence, etc., are the characteristics of the subjects

(animals or human), which may be conveniently termed as subject variables. Subject variables can be

divided into two types: the natural subject variable and the induced subject variable. The natural subject

variables are those variables which the subjects carry within themselves before the start of the

experiment. Age, sex, intelligence, and anxiety are examples of natural subject variables. Induced subject

variables, also known as instructional variables, are those subject variables, which are induced by the

experimenter's instruction. Suppose the investigator wants to study the effect of two methods (A and B)

upon the problem-solving behaviour. He may instruct one group of subjects with one set of instructions

and another group of subjects with another set of instructions. The two different sets of instructions are

likely to produce changes in problem-solving behaviour. Likewise, the investigator may want to study

learning as a function of ego-involvement. He may, for example, give instructions to one group of

subjects that a given task is the test of his ability and to another group of subjects that the task is being
used as standard practice followed in the experimental situation. These two types of instructions are likely

to produce differences in performance of the task.

From the point of view of the unit of measurement, there are two important ways of classifying

variables.

(i) Whether the unit of measurement is categorical (as we find in case of nominal-uses names like low,

average, high or ordinal scale-uses ranking order like 1, 2, 3) or continuous in nature (as we find in case

of interval or ratio scale)

(ii) Whether it is qualitative (as we find in nominal and ordinal scales) or quantitative in nature (as we

find in interval and ratio scale)

Variables thus classified on the basis of unit of measurement are called qualitative and quantitative

variables, and categorical and continuous variables. There is very little difference between qualitative and

categorical, and continuous and quantitative variables.

Qualitative Variables And Quantitative Variables: The qualitative variables refer to those variables which

consist of categories that cannot be ordered in magnitude. We cannot make such a statement regarding the

qualitative variables, e.g., 'category X possesses higher (or lower) magnitude of the variable than category

Y. Thus the qualitative variables comprise the categories which do not have a quantitative relationship

among themselves. Sex, race and religion are examples of qualitative variables because they cannot be

ordered in magnitude. Since the qualitative variables cannot be ordered in the magnitude, precise and

accurate measurements are not possible. As a consequence, they are least preferred in any scientific

investigation. The quantitative variables refer to those variables which are composed of categories that

can be ordered in magnitude. We can, for example, say that category A possesses greater magnitude of

the variable than category B. Intelligence, age, levels of illumination, intensity of sound, etc., are

examples of quantitative variables. We can say that group A possesses a higher magnitude of intelligence

than group B and older people get fatigued sooner than younger and adult ones. Thus the variables can be

ordered in terms of magnitude. With the quantitative variables, precise and accurate measurements are
possible because they can easily be ordered in terms of increasing or decreasing magnitude. In

psychology and education, fortunately, most of the variables belong to the category of quantitative

variables. In sociology, qualitative variables are more common.

Continuous Variables and Discrete Variables: Quantitative variables are further divided into two

categories, namely, continuous variables and discrete variables. A continuous variable is one which is

capable of being measured in any arbitrary degree of fineness or exactness. Of course, the measurement is

subject to the limitations of available tools. Age, height, intelligence, reaction time, etc., are some of the

examples of a continuous variable. The age of a person can be measured in years, months and days. To go

to even a smaller unit of measurement, age can be expressed in terms of hours, minutes and seconds also.

Likewise, reaction time can be measured in seconds and milliseconds. If required, it can also be measured

in terms of microseconds. Thus, all such variables which can be measured in the smallest degree of

fineness are examples of continuous variables. The discrete variables (also known as categorical

variables) are those variables which are not capable of being measured in any arbitary degree of fineness

or exactness because the variables contain a clear gap. For example, the number of members in a family

constitutes an example of a discrete variable. The members of a family may be any number like 5, 6, 7,

and so on. No amount of refinement in the measuring instrument can produce a value of 3 1/2, 4 3/5, 5, _

or _ members. As a general rule, discrete variables are those variables whose values can be determined by

counting. The number of children in a family, the number of females in a particlar state or district, the

number of books in a library, and so on, are some of the examples of discrete variables.

In psychology and education, most of the quantitative variables belong to the category of continuous

variables.

It should, however, be noted that independent variables may be qualitative, quantitative, continuous or

discrete. The same holds true for dependent variables. However, in most of the psychological and

educational researches, independent variables as well as dependent variables are quantitative and

continuous.
From the viewpoint of study design that may be experimental or nonexperimental, there are two sets of

variables: active variables and attribute variables. A variable which is manipulated by the experimenter is

the active variable and the variable which is not manipulated but measured by the experimenter is the

attribute variable or organismic variable. Examples of active variables are reward, punishment, methods

of teaching, etc. Some of the examples of attribute variables are age, sex, intelligence, race, anxiety, etc.

These variables are human characteristics which have already been determined. They cannot be directly

altered or manipulated by the experimenter. When the investigator wants to know whether or not ten-

year-old girls are superior to ten-year-old boys in numerical ability, it serves as an example of the study of

one organismic variable or attribute variable (sex) upon the dependent variable (the numerical ability).

The above distinction between the active variable and the attribute variable is general and is sometimes

confusing as well. There are some variables which can be categorized as attribute variables as well as

active variables. For example, anxiety is one such variable. Anxiety can be manipulated by giving a set

instruction to the subjects. In this case, it becomes an active variable. Anxiety can also be measured with

the help of a scale or test. In this case, it constitutes the example of an attribute variable. Thus the variable

of anxiety can be studied either as an active variable or as an attribute or organismic variable. Several

other examples can be cited in this way.