Chapter 2: Organisation of the Organism
2.1 Cell Structure
Basic features of all living cells:
1. Cell membrane
2. Cytoplasm
3. Genetic material (DNA)
4. Ribosomes
Eukaryotic cells:
Cells of fungi, plant and animal cells are eukaryotic cells.
Structures found in plant cells:
Nucleus, cytoplasm, ribosomes, mitochondria, large central vacuole, cell wall, cell membrane,
and chloroplasts
Structures found in animal cells:
Nucleus, cytoplasm, ribosomes, mitochondria and cell membrane.
Structures found in bacterial cells:
Circular DNA, cytoplasm, ribosomes, cell membrane, cell wall and plasmids
Parts of a cell Function
Nucleus Contains genetic material (DNA); Genetic information in the form of
genes is stored on chromosomes; controls cell division.
Cytoplasm Supports cell structures and site of metabolic reactions
Cell membrane Partially permeable; controls the entry and exit of substances in a cell.
Cell wall Provides protection and support. Prevents plant cells from bursting.
Vacuole Contains cell sap which helps to maintain the shape of the cell; cell sap
stores some materials
Chloroplasts Contain chlorophyll which absorbs light energy for photosynthesis
Mitochondria Site of aerobic respiration
Ribosomes Site of protein synthesis.
Plasmids small, circular molecules of DNA, found in many prokaryotic cells in
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addition to the main, much larger circle of DNA
Vesicles [in Animal cells have very tiny membrane bound spaces called vesicles
Animal cells] which contains substances made by the cell for transport within or
outside cells.
Note: New cells are produced by division of existing cells.
Specialised cells
[Specialised cells have a special shape which helps with their function]
Specialised Animal cells:
1. Ciliated epithelial cells
Found in the inner lining of the respiratory tract and in oviducts.
Function: movement of mucus in the trachea and bronchi
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2. Red blood cells [RBCs]
Function: Transports oxygen to all parts of the body.
3. Neurons / Nerve cells
Function: conduction of electrical impulses
4. Sperm cells
Function: reproduction
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5. Egg cells
Function: reproduction
Specialised Plant cells:
1. Root hair cells
Function: absorption of water and minerals.
2. Palisade mesophyll cells
Function: photosynthesis
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Levels of Organisation
• Tissue: a group of similar cells that work together to perform a particular function.
• Organ: a group of tissues, that work together to perform a particular function.
• Organ system: several organs that work together to perform a particular function.
Explain why a leaf is described as an organ, not a tissue. [3]
1. A leaf contains different types of cells / a tissue contains only one type;
2. At least two named examples of tissues in a leaf – epidermis, mesophyll
3. Leaf /organ + carries out a number of functions - photosynthesis, transpiration.
Organ system in plants:
A. Shoot system: with organs like leaf, flowers, stem, fruit
B. Root system: with organ called roots
Organ systems in humans:
A. Digestive system
B. Circulatory system
C. Nervous system,
D. Excretory system,
E. Reproductive system
F. Respiratory system
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Drawing and Magnification
Magnification of a specimen = Measured length of the Image
Actual length of the specimen
M = I/A
Note: Magnification has no units.
Note: In IGCSE Biology units of lengths are to be measured in millimeters or micrometers.
1 mm = 1000 µm
1 cm = 10 mm
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