Facilitating Learner

Centered Teaching
MODULE FOR CHED ROXI- PROJECT WRITE

SY 2020-2021

Project WRITE XI:

An Easy Guide for Course Pack making
And Module Development

This document is intfended for the course pack team members

of PROEJCT WRITE for use in the write shop. THE FINAL
COURSE PACK COVER DESIGN AND PUBLICATION
FORMAT WILL BE GIVEN AS SOON AS IT IS ALREADY
APPROVED BY THE PROJECT TEAM.
 August 1, 2020
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Table of Contents

Module 1 FACILITATING LEARNER CENTRED TEACHING

1.1 Introduction to Learner-Centred Teaching 6 1.2 Learner

Centered Pedagogical Approaches 15 1.3 Learning Theories 25 1.4
Outcomes of Teacher Education 44

Module 2 COGNITION OF LEARNERS

2.1 Multi Store memory Model 57 2.2 Dual Code Theory 60 2.3
Forgetting Curve Model 63 2.4 Spaced Retrieval 66 2.5
Lateralization of the Brain function 69 2.6 Intelligence Theories 79
2.7 Metacognition

Module 3 MOTIVATION OF LEARNERS

3.1 Motivation: Definition and Types 86 3.2 Academic Motivation

91 3.3 ARCS Motivation Model 95

Module 4 EMOTIONS OF LEARNERS

4.1 Emotional Response of Learners 102 4.2 Emotional Intelligence

108 4.3 Positive Teacher-Student Relations 113 4.4 Positive Peer
Relations 117

Module 5 INCLUSIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

5.1 Learning Style Models 127 5.2 Learners with Diverse Abilities
and Background 140 5.3 Fair & Safe Learning Environment 147 5.4
Learner Participation 152 5.5 Misbehavior Management 155

APPENDICES
A Photo for Activity for Lesson 2.1 of Module 2 164 B Answer Keys 165
C APA’s Top 20 Principles of Teaching-Learning 166

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TEMPLATE 1: Course Specification
Team Leader: Dr. Michelle Y. Acledan

Members: Dr. Cyril Mamocod

Dr. Marivic Neri
Dr. Mona Chagas
Dr. Michael Carillo
Dr. Bryan Cancio
Dr. Christina Chavez
Dr. Avesma Bentayao
 Dr. Ada Namoc
Dr. Angilly Librea

Course Title Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

Course Description This course explores the fundamental principles, process and
practices anchored on learner centeredness and
other educational psychologies as these apply to
facilitate teaching learning delivery modes to enhance
learning.
Units / Credit Equivalent 3
Course Outcomes In this course , you are expected to achieve the
following outcomes of learning:

∙ Explain the cognitive, affective, and motivation

factors that facilitate the process of learning

∙ Discuss learning theories that support the need for a

learner-centered approach to teaching

∙ Design an instructional plan that reflects the

application of learner-centered principles

∙ Create a classroom management plan that reflects

the principles of an inclusive learning environment.

Learning Outcomes At the end of the lessons, you are expected to:

∙ Discuss the principles of a student-centered

teaching

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TEMPLATE 2: Course Pack Structure
(This template must be accomplished after the team approves Template 1. A very
important step in competing this template is the decision of the team to cluster the
Intended Learning Outcomes in order to make decision as to the number of modules
in a course pack. This also serves as basis in assigning writers for each module and
lessons. This template can help avoid overlapping of topics and/or outcomes and
must be deliberated and agreed upon by the team as the concept map of the entire
course.)
 Modul Intended Learning Lessons Writer
e Outcomes

1 Apply principles of 1.1 Introduction to LCT 1.1, 1.2

learner –centered 1.2 LCT Approaches Dr. Michelle Acledan
teaching in 1.3 Learning Theories
planning 1.4 Outcomes of Teacher Education 1.3, 1.4
instructional Dr. Cyril Mamocod
activities for
students

2 Discuss how 2.1 Multi-Store Memory 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4

student’s cognitive Model 2.2 Dual Coding Dr. Marivic Neri
abilities enable Theory
learning to take 2.3 Forgetting Curve Model 2.5, 2.6, 2.7
place 2.4 Spaced Retrieval Dr. Mona Chagas
2.5 Lateralization of Brain
Function 2.6 Theories of
Intelligence
2.7 Metacognition

3 Defend how 3.1 Motivation & Self 3.1

motivation of Determination 3.2 Academic Dr. Michael Carillo
students drive their Motivation
desire to learn 3.3ARCS motivation model 3.2, 3.3
Dr. Bryan Cancio

4 Explain how 4.1 Emotional Response of 4.1

emotions facilitate Learners 4.2 Emotional Dr. Christina Chavez
the learning Intelligence
experience of 4.3 Positive Teacher-Student 4.2, 4.3, 4.4
students. Relations Dr. Avesma Bentayao
4.4 Positive Peer Relations4.1

5 Create an 5.1 Learning Styles 5.1, 5.2

instructional plan 5.2 Students with Diverse Abilities Dr. Ada Namoc
that reflects a & Background
learner-centred 5.3 Fair & Safe Learning 5.3, 5.4, 5.5
teaching principles Environment Dr. Angilly Librea
and approach in an 5.4 Learner Participation
inclusive learning 5.5 Misbehavior Management
environment.

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MODULE 1

Facilitating
Learner Centered Teaching

TEMPLATE 3: Module Template

Module No. & Title 1 Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

Module Overview Welcome dear student to another important course in your

 journey to become an excellent teacher. Indeed, if you have
the desire to become an effective 21st century teacher for
millennial learners, this module will help you reach that goal.
You are highly encouraged to embrace a growth mindset as
you go through the lessons. This module will open your mind
to what is learner centered teaching, what teaching approaches
promote learner-centeredness, and how it is applied in a face-
to-face classroom setting or even in a virtual learning
environment.

Module Apply principles of learner –centered teaching in

Objectives/Outcomes planning instructional activities for students

Lessons in the Lesson 1.1 Introduction to Learner Centered

module Teaching Lesson 1.2 Learner Centered Teaching
Approaches Lesson 1.3 Theories of Learning
Lesson 1.4 Outcomes of Teacher Education

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LESSON 1.1
TEMPLATE 4: The Lesson Structure
Module 1 FACILITATING LEARNER CENTERED TEACHING
No. and
Title

Lesson No. 1.1 Introduction to Learner Centered Teaching

and Title

Learning : (This part of the lesson structure can be lifted from the ILO in
Outcomes the learning plan)

Time Frame 2 hours

Introduction Hello dear learner! Welcome to another exciting course that

will deepen your understanding on how to become proficient
in implementing a learner-centred teaching approach.

In the last 20 years of research in the field of learner-centred

teaching, the evidence points strongly to bringing the students at
the center or the focus of the learning process. As a future teacher,
you need to consider very well your students’ learning goals, the
subject matter they want students to learn, and select an appropriate
pedagogical approach that will really enable them to learn.
Activity Take time to thoughtfully answer the checklist
below for you to reflect on your prior
knowledge and experience related to student
centred teaching. Check your response under the
YES and NO column.

Checklist on Learner-Centred Pedagogy

Yes No
∙ Were you allowed by your teachers to set
specific learning goals for yourself? No, just for the whole class
mostly.

∙ Have you experienced being given the freedom

to choose a topic for a course requirement? Yes, I have for
thesis requirements.

∙ Have you experienced being asked by your

teacher for your input or opinion in deciding
what topics to learn in a course? No, normally the teachers
already have it planned.

∙ Have you experienced being given a chance to

choose a type of assessment task you can do to
effectively demonstrate what you already know? Yes, sit works,
lab works, and others types of assessment task mostly after the
discussions.

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∙ Do your teachers frequently check first what you

already know about a certain lesson? Yes an intro.

∙ Has collaboration among students emphasized

more than competition in your learning
experience through the years? Yes.

∙ Have you experienced being given the

opportunity to develop your self- and peer
assessment skills? Yes.

∙ Have you experienced being given a flexible date

for submitting your project? Yes.
Analysis Let us now examine closely your response to the
checklist.

1. Where did most of your responses fall in the checklist? More of

Yes or more of No? More of yes and it proves that in today’s
curriculum it is indeed a learner centered teaching.

2. If more of yes, how did you feel about those experiences?

I realized how fortunate be accommodated and learn

efficiently. I was lucky to be born in this era of education. It

is not a coincidence but a product of the time and

experiment since the start of quality education. I

experienced this kind of timeless teaching strategy and

curriculum.

3. If more of No, how did you feel under those

circumstances?

4. For items which you answered NO, which of these would you
have liked to really have or experience in the past?Why do
you say so? If I was given the chance and their is an
opportunity to come again I would like my weaknesses to be
addressed. There are times that I feel left behind from the
whole class and normally I would not really mention my
struggles to the professor unless I find someone in my class
with identical struggle and we are able to relay our concerns
and their is a good chance that it will be accomodated. I just
think that kind of treatment or service during the semester is
impossible unless there is enough time and more free
schedule. I hope it is more open to complain and be
accomodated with a intervention perhaps personal make up
classes that happens during the semester. I think that would
be possible if their are more teachers in a institution. But
considering that I’m now in college most school works
should be done with the students initiative and it is a
responsible. Personal tutoral by the teacher itself does not
normally happen. There would be no others choice but to
retake a course in the summer.
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For items in the checklist which you responded to as yes, they are
some clear examples of your own experiences which reflect a
learner centered teaching approach. To know more about the
essential features of Learner-Centred Pedagogy, let us now turn to
the next section.

Abstraction Learner Centered Teaching (LCT) has become a popular phrase

among educators nowadays. It has been named in several ways
such as student-centred approach or learner-centered pedagogy in
many textbooks and journal articles. Looking at the research
literature surrounding learner-centred teaching in the past 20 years,
a book published in 2002 by Maryllen Weimer stands as one of the
earlier attempts to comprehensively discuss and define what is
LCT about.

In Weimer’s book titled, ‘Learner-Centered Teaching: Five

KeyChanges to Practice’, five key changes were significantly
taking place in schools. Each of the features will be discussed
briefly below and are presented in Figure 1.

Balance of Power
Balance of Power

Evaluation
Evaluation
Responsibility of
Responsibility of
Purpose &
Purpose &
5
Learner
5
Learner
Process
Process
Features
Features

Function of
Function of Role of Teacher
Role of Teacher
Content
Content

Figure 1
Five Key Changes in Learner Centered Teaching Practices
Balance of Power

∙ In a traditional classroom, the power to

decide what lessons to discuss, what
learning activities students must
engage in, and what assessment tasks
to give mainly belongs to the teacher
with little input from students. On the
other hand, in a student-centered
classroom, a teacher shares that power

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 by consulting learners prior to making final decisions.

∙ The traditional exercise of power in the classroom often

benefits the teacher more than it promotes student learning.
The uniform instructional approach or ‘one-size-fits-all’
concept certainly is more convenient on the part of the teacher
who has worked hard in planning, implementing, and
assessing outcomes of learning. However, this uniform
approach has been criticized by scholars by being
unresponsive to the diversity of needs, interests, and readiness
among students.

∙ In order to balance power in the classroom, learners are

frequently consulted and given immediate and ongoing
feedback by the teacher. The teacher empowers students by
giving them the opportunity to choose and make decisions
like selecting among lesson topics, choose learning activities,
determine pace of learning, and select an assessment task to
demonstrate one’s mastery of targeted learning competencies.

Function of Content

∙ Current research evidence from educational psychology calls

for a change in the function of curriculum content which
should be less on covering it and more on using content to
develop a learner’s individual way of understanding or sense-
making. Teachers need to allow learners to raise their own
questions, generate their own answers or solutions.

∙ From a constructivist perspective, knowledge cannot simply be

given to students: Students must construct their own
meanings” (Stage, Muller, Kinzie, and Simmons, 1998, p. 35).
In other words, learners are capable of constructing and
reconstructing their knowledge through active personal effort.
This view debunks the current belief about students’ learning
from passively receiving information transmitted from
teachers via lectures.

∙ In order to facilitate learning that changes how students think

and understand, teachers must begin by finding out students’
prior knowledge or conceptions and then design learning
activities that will change these pre-instructional concepts.

∙ Learner-centered teaching also regards content as more of

competency-based learning in which students master targeted
skills and content before progressing to another lesson. The
more important practice here is to accommodate students’
differing pace of learning. For instance, some students may be
able to demonstrate they know how to use a microscope in 1
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hour while others need 2 hours of practice to
demonstrate proficiency in manipulating it.

∙ With patient guidance and ongoing support from teachers,

competency-based learning would ensure that students
advance to new material when they are ready, at their own
pace, whether they can move quickly or whether they need
more time.

Role of the Teacher

∙ Constructivism theory brings the role of the

teacher as that of a facilitator of learning,
not as the fountain of learning. He/she
instead encourages students to explore
multiple knowledge sources, make sense of
it, and personally organize the information
taken from different sources.

∙ As generally observed, less knowledgeable and experienced

learners will interact with content in less intellectually
robust ways, but the goal is to involve students in the
process of acquiring and retaining information.

∙ This shifting view on the role of the teacher deemphasizes the

focus on teaching techniques and methods if they are
considered separate from the subject matter and learning
structures of the discipline.

∙ Teachers no longer function as exclusive content expert or

authoritarian classroom managers and no long work to
improve teaching by developing sophisticated presentation
skills.

∙ Greater involvement with students by the teacher is central to

student motivation. Diekelmann et al (2004) show how a
nursing teacher increasingly included students in ‘cocreating
compelling courses’ and was surprised ‘by the insights
students shared regarding how to create compelling courses
and their willingness to collaborate with …[her] to improve
teaching and learning experiences’ (Diekelmann et al, 2004,
p.247).

∙ Maclellan finds that ‘the teacher is involved in clarifying the

subject matter, offering examples, or suggesting arguments
for or against a point of view may minimize the students’
need to think’ while, equally, ‘little engagement by the tutor,
 leaving students to determine both what and how to learn
without any criteria to judge their process, is unsatisfactory,
inefficient and makes a nonsense of formal, higher
education as a planned and designed system (Maclellan,
2008, p.418).

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∙ Teachers must become comfortable with changing their

leadership style from directive to consultative-- from "Do as I
say" to "Based on your needs, let's co-develop and implement
a plan of action.

Responsibility for Learning

∙ In recent years, work on self-regulated learning

has advanced, and the goal of 21st century
education ought to be the creation of
independent, autonomous learners who assume
responsibility for their own learning.

∙ Adults are known to be capable of self-directed learning

and that continuous learning occurs across their career
span and lifetime.

∙ Each student may require different ways of

learning, researching and analysing the
information available.

∙ It establishes that students can and should be made

responsible for their own learning.

∙ Learning skills of autonomous self-regulating learners can

be learned and must be taught even at an early age. This is
even more important when entering higher education.

∙ The learning skills acquired in basic education and

higher education will be used throughout the course of
their
professional and personal lives.

∙ Learning is cooperative, collaborative, and community-oriented.

∙ Students are encouraged to direct their own learning and to

work with other students on research projects and
 assignments that are both culturally and socially relevant to
them.

∙ Class often starts with a mini-lesson, which then flows into

students making choices about what they need to do next
to meet specific learning targets aligned to the standards.

Evaluation Purpose and Process

∙ The literature on self-directed learning also underscores the

importance of assessment, only in this case it is the ability
of students to self-assess accurately. Sophisticated learners
know when they do or do not understand something.

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∙ They can review a performance and identify what
needs improvement.

∙ They have mechanisms for its collections and methods

for evaluating it and acting on it.

Four Principles of Student-centered Approach

A more recent research on the student-centered approach was

reported by Kaput in 2018 that was funded by the Nellie Mae
Education Foundation and UMass Donahue Institute. This study
surveyed 12 public high schools in New England in terms of
how they apply learner-centered teaching in their classroom
practices. The said survey summarized their findings in to 4
tenet which are:

Learning is
Students engage in different ways and in
different places.
Personalized

Learning is
Students move ahead when they have
demonstrated mastery of content, not when
competency
they’ve reached a certain birthday or
based
endured the required hours in a classroom.

Learning
Learning takes place beyond the traditional
school day, and even the school year.
happens anytime,
Learning is also not restricted to the
anywhere
classroom.

Students take
Students are engaged in their own success,
as well as incorporate their interests and
ownership of
skills into the learning process.
their learning

Kaput’s study reported that the majority of the participating

schools were effective in personalizing the learning of their
students and creating an environment where students took
ownership of their learning. However, the study also found that
the participating schools struggled with implementing and
practicing “anytime, anywhere learning” due to a series of
challenges that both teachers and administrators faced. Teachers
from the participating schools largely responded that student-
centered learning promoted higher student engagement and
facilitated learning that was more relevant to students. Further, a
large percentage of the teachers contended that in student-
centered environments students explored the curriculum with
more depth and retained knowledge more effectively than in
traditional settings.

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 Top 20 Principles for PreK–12 Teaching and Learning

The American Psychological Association (APA) published in

2015 its top 20 principles for teaching and learning for basic
education teachers. These principles were based on decades of
research on human learning and can well serve as lampposts for
today’s teachers on how to facilitate learner-centered teaching. A
brief statement of APA on the implications of the top 20
principles to current teaching practices is quoted below:

“Psychological science has much to

contribute to enhancing teaching and
learning in the classroom. Teaching and
learning are intricately linked to social
and behavioral factors of human
development, including cognition,
motivation, social interaction, and
communication”
(APA, 2015, p.8)

As a future educator, the top 20 principles revolve around the

following key concepts to keep in mind whenever we design
our instructional plans and implement them with our students.

Prior Knowledge Self-Regulation Formative Assessment

Learner’s Belief on Intelligence

Mastery Goals

Summative Assessment

Creativity

Interpersonal Relationships

Measuring with Standards

Teacher Expectations

Social Interaction

Fair Interpretation

Long Term Knowledge

Emotional Wellbeing

Feedback

Contextual Learning

Positive Relationships

Student Support

Practice

You may now turn to Appendix C for a more thorough discussion of

the Top 20 principles from APA.
Application It would be good at this time for you to personally find out how
Filipino teachers are currently practicing the student centred
approach in teaching.

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You may conduct a one-on-one interview
with a new and seasoned teacher in your
school, or among your relatives and friends,
or those within your neighborhood. List
down his or her practices in terms of
applying the learner-centred teaching
approach.

Write their responses on the table below:

New Teacher
Seasoned Teacher
(below 5 years of teaching
(more than 10 years of teching
experience
ecxperience)

After conducting the interview, what was the most interesting

response you received from your interviewees? Why do you say so?

_____________________________________________________
__
_____________________________________________________
__
_____________________________________________________
__
_____________________________________________________
__
_____________________________________________________
__

Closure Congratulations for finishing your first lesson on learner-centered

pedagogy. By becoming aware of the essential features and
principles of learner centered pedagogy, you are now informed on
how to appropriately design your teaching practice in a way that
would be best serve the interest, needs and abilities of your future
 students.

In Lesson 2, you will have a closer look at some available

pedagogical approaches that will equip you with a more practical
ideas how to facilitate a learner-centered classroom.

LESSON 1.2
TEMPLATE 4: The Lesson Structure
Module 1 FACILITATING LEARNER CENTERED TEACHING
No. and
Title

Lesson No. 1.2 Learner-Centered Teaching Approaches

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and Title

Learning (This part of the lesson structure can be lifted from the ILO in
Outcomes the learning plan)

Time Frame 5 hours

Introduction Prepare yourself for an exciting lesson on Learner-Centred

Pedagogical Approaches. I am sure you are very interested to
understand how to really help your future students to learn, which is
basically the ultimate desire of every teacher. You are fortunate
indeed to have access to a number of teaching models and approaches
that have already been heavily researched. Let us now turn our
attention to three pedagogical approaches that are recognized as more
learner-centred rather than teacher centered as was observed in the
traditional instructional approach.

You may procced to answering the given activity below.

Activity Instructor/Facilitation Assessment
Source: Center of Excellence for Careers in
Education

Check the item that most nearly describes an

instructor’s interaction with you as a student
that reflects a more learner-centered approach.

_____1.The instructor is clear when he/she tells me what to do.

/[Link] instructor’s questions are helpful in assisting me in making

decisions.
/3. The instructor meets class on time.
/4. The instructor’s availability schedule is posted.
/5. The instructor works effectively with me one on one.
/6. The instructor always meets with the class as a whole.
/7. The instructor always offers me options rather than telling me
what to do.
/8. The instructor makes corrections to my work that are clear and
gives me direction.
/9. The instructor’s interactions with me, have helped me become a
better problem solver.
_____10. The instructor always has the right answer.
/11. The instructor always gives me several suggestions to
choose from.
_____12. The instructor solves problems for me.
/13. The instructor lets me work problems out for myself.
_____14. The instructor is more like a band conductor than an
advisor.
/15. The instructor is more like a coach than a director.
/16. The instructor is a good listener.
_____17. The instructor’s instructions are helpful.
/18. The instructor uses “What if you ....” statements rather than “
You should do this...”

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 /19. The instructor is good at finding answers to my questions. /20. I
always feel that the project is mine and I am responsible for
thinking it through.
_____21. I can count on the instructor coming up with the right
idea if I am stuck.
/22. The instructor values my ability to figure things out for
myself.
_____23. My instructor values me following his/her instructions.
/24. The instructor shares with me his/her thinking.
_____25. I have no idea how the instructor solves problems.
/26. The instructor sets all the timelines for meeting deadlines.
/27. I am responsible for the timelines for meeting deadlines.
_____28. The instructor comes to class with prepared class
activities.
/29. The instructor builds the class activity around student’s
questions and concerns.
/30. The instructor gives suggestions as to where I can find
information.
_____31. The instructor will find information for me.
/32. The instructor encourages me to discover things for myself.
/33. The instructor answers my questions in a way easy for me to
understand.
/34. The instructor answers my questions with questions.
_____35. The instructor always has the right answer.

After carefully answering the Instructor Facilitation assessment, refer

to the answer key posted at the end of the analysis section.

Analysis Let us now begin to deeply reflect on your

response to the assessment. Try to briefly answer
to each question.
5. What do you consider as the most noticeable practice of a
learner- centred instructor?

There are several ways to practice learner- centred teaching

inside a classroom but what is most noticeable that somehow
students are able active with is that how this kind of educational
system values a students ability. Wherein students are included in
the teachers basis for its teaching plans. Instead of always having
the perfect class plan teacher values students concerns and use
these as objectives and framework for his discussion and the way
of teaching and learning is adjusted that benefits and positively
challenges both parties. And also students are enabled to practice
skills and become responsible to its learning and not everything is
spoon fed. Not because it is a learner- centred teaching
everything will then be easy for the students. This also mean that
student are given the freedom to explore and research for
information independently to self-reflect and self-regulate his
learning to become skillful and independent not only in academic
but in different part of his life where he needs to be like one.

6. What do you also observe as the most noticeable practice of the

teacher-centred instrutor?
I notice that everything is one way as in it is all on the teacher’s
responsibility to give knowledge between the teaching learning
 process. There are limited chances to practice critical thinking
skills, we are more guarded than guided, students are not able to
express concerns and desires to do learning regulation as simple as
looking for sources to compare information and achieve
satisfaction in confirming credibility. The way the teacher delivers
ideas are never adjusted to suit the levels of each student and
sometimes learning is less motivating. For example, teachers
would interrupt during the students' sharing of output to correct
instead of giving students a chance to present it’s effort from
researching information from sources online.

7. If you had a more learner-centered instructor, how would you

feel about your learning experience under those circumstances?

Alongside with the teacher’s facility it would be helpful to me to

become more engaged in researching for my learning. To discover
expounded information relating to my course outside the modules.
It can be difficult and stressful especially in higher level of
education but above all I believe it is meant to be a positive
challenge so I students could develop competency and
independence and become critical and skillful in different aspects.

8. On the other hand, if you had a more teacher-centred

instructor, how would you feel about your learning experience
under such

August 1, 2020
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Circumstances?
In that kind of teaching I think there would be more reinforcement from
the teacher and no chance for the student to self-regulate and that would
cause students to be too dependent. I learned that it gives a fulfilling
feeling to be able to research for my own learning because I would try
hard to have the right interpretation and allow myself to be a critical
teacher and then teachers supplementary discussions if ever there is a
contrast.

To know more about the essential features of Learner-Centred

Pedagogy, let us now turn to the next section.

Answer Key to Instructor/Facilitation Assessment

 The following item identify learning-centered facilitation behaviors
of an instructor.: (2, 4, 6, 8, 13, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 27, 29, 30,
32, 34)

Abstraction Learner Centered Pedagogical Approaches

According to this image of teaching and learning, the ideal classroom

for the 21st century learners will no longer be one in which 30-50
students are always listening to the teacher or silently working on
their own. Alt

ed to be trained to work in alternative arrangements such as:

∙ talking to each other in small and large groups

∙ making public their personal knowledge and beliefs

∙ constructing and testing their knowledge with peers and

teachers.

Among the popular instructional approaches that have been

extensively researched for more than two decades are the Cooperative
Learning Approach, Differentiated Instruction Approach, and the
Personalized Learning Approach. A comparison of these 3
pedagogical approaches along with the traditional approach is shown
in the table below using the 5 essential elements of Learner-Centered
Pedagogy by Weimer.

Table 1
A Comparison of Teaching Approaches

Elements Traditional
Cooperative
Differentiated
Personalized
Instructional
Learning
Instructional
Learning
Approach
Approach
approach
Approach

Balance of
Dominant
Dominant
More choices
Mostly reliant
Power
teachers
teachers
given to students
on on student
based on their
motivation,
Minor role
Empowered
ability levels and
 engagement,

August 1, 2020
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Function of content Imposed a Same content Differen
highly processed by content
structured students in terms o
curriculum groups, fixed difficult
content in a timeline of levels, m
fixed pace learning flexible
and of learn
timeline of
learning

Role of Knowledge Facilitator Designe

teacher Expert of learning differen
Authoritarian tasks done in learning
classroom collaborative to
manager peer-group accomm
settings readines
profile
interest
students

Responsibi lity for Students are Learning is co Learnin

Learning expected to created by created
fully students in students
understand group settings group s
knowledge
passed on by
their teachers

Cooperative Learning Approach (CLA)

The Cooperative learning Approach (CLA) started

becoming popular in the 1990’s in an attempt to move
away from traditional pedagogical approach that relied
heavily on uniform instruction for a large-sized
classroom. The CLA used the social interdependence
theory, which proposes that the behavioral outcomes of a
person are affected by their own and others' actions. Said
theory became the framework for designing teaching-
learning activities in peer group settings.

Johnson and Johnson (1994) described five factors that

influence the effectiveness of cooperation in classrooms
which are shown in the figure below.

learners students teams

for learning
Figure 1 Approach
Five Factors for an Effective Cooperative Learning

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 Individual
Individual
Positive
Positive
Group
Interpersonal
Group
Promotive
Interpersonal

SkillsPromotive
Interdependenc
& Group
Interdependenc
& Group
Interaction
Processing
Skills
Interaction
Processing
e
e
Accountability
Accountability

Positive Interdependence.
∙ Students commit to personal success as well as the success of
every member of the group. If students are having
difficulties, their group mates are there to support them.

∙ Positive interdependence can also promote motivation to learn,

because students are learning not just for themselves but also
for the benefit of their groups.

∙ Working in groups involved sharing information helping

each other in doing the group task so that they progress
together.

Individual and group accountability.

∙ The group is accountable for achieving its goals, and each
member must be accountable for contributing a fair share of
the work toward the group goal

Interpersonal and small group skills.

∙ Group members learn how to apply teamwork skills that has
collaborative leadership, making fair decisions,
∙ Students also develop friendship by building trust,
communicating freely, and resolving conflict.

Promotive Interaction
∙ Students promote each other's success by sharing resources
or information that will help every member.
 ∙ Peers take time to encourage, and praise each other's efforts
to learn.

Group Processing
∙ Group members need to feel free to communicate openly
with each other to express concerns as well as to celebrate
accomplishments.

∙ Learners take time to monitor and discuss how well they

are achieving their goals and maintaining effective
working relationships.

∙ Students frequently reflect and discuss on how well they are

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achieving their goals and work to maintain effective
working relationships.

Differentiated Instructional Approach (DIA)

The pedagogical concept of differentiation as opposed to uniform

instruction was first popularized by Carol Ann Tomlinson with her
book How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms,
published in 1995. In Tomlinson’s 2nd edition in 2014, she described
teachers in differentiated classes as using time flexibly, applying a
range of instructional strategies, and becoming partners with their
students so that both what is learned and the learning environment are
shaped to authentically support the learning process of the student.

In DI approach, teachers usually differentiate their teaching by

modifying three aspects in his/her classroom practice. Each aspect of
practice is presented below with examples on how each is applied in
actual teaching practice.

Figure 2
Differentiating 3 Aspects of Pedagogy

Content
Process
Product

lessons that students learn

teaching-learning activities
performance of students
that help students to learn

Differentiating Content
∙ The most important part is to diagnose the learners’ prior
knowledge so as to determine his/her readiness to learn new
content. In fact, diagnostic assessments form the foundation
for designing differentiated teaching-learning activities to
better construct or build upon students’ prior knowledge.

∙ Via differentiation, teachers respond proactively to differences in

students' knowledge, skills, learning styles, interests, and
cognitive needs in order to create multiple access points to
content.

∙ Teachers may differentiate several learning tasks or pathways

within the same lesson that match the needs of specific students
or student groups.

∙ Teachers should hold all students to the same expectations and

goals related to mastery of essential content but may utilize
different techniques and modified activities to help each student
meet outlined objectives (Bondie, Dahnke & Zusho, 2019).

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Differentiating Process
∙ Teachers utilize whole-class, small-group, and individual
explorations. Students are allowed to work with peers who
show similar academic needs at a given time.

∙ Students of mixed readiness are also allowed to work together

so that they may draw upon the strengths of others.

∙ Students allow to choose to work with classmates who have

similar interests or learning styles or even collaborate with
those who have different interests or learning style profile.

∙ Students themselves sometimes decide on their work groups

and arrangements, and sometimes teachers also decide.

∙ Teachers may also use technology to create blended learning

classrooms that allow for multiple leveled activities and
centers.

Differentiating Product

∙ Flexibility in the work products and performances that students

complete to demonstrate newly acquired knowledge or skills
supports accurate evaluation of students' capabilities while
also allowing students to leverage their strengths to achieve
the same standards as their peers.

∙ Assessments can be implemented before, during, and after

instruction to monitor student progress relative to
differentiated instruction.

∙ Create and implement assessments that accurately measure

competencies, analyze assessment results to identify
students who are below mastery level

∙ Students are provided with alternative ways to act skillfully

and demonstrate what they know

Personalized Learning Approach (PLA)

In personalized Learning systems, instead of counting the number of

hours students are in their seats, students move through coursework
and graduate based on their ability to show they have mastered the
material

The United States National Education Technology Plan 2017

defines personalized learning as follows:
 August 1, 2020
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Personalized learning refers to instruction in which the pace of
learning and the instructional approach are optimized for the needs
of each learner. Learning objectives, instructional approaches, and
instructional content (and its sequencing) may all vary based on
learner needs.

Personalized learning is a progressively student–driven model where

students deeply engage in meaningful, authentic, and rigorous
challenges to demonstrate desired outcomes (Zmuda, Curtis &
Ullman, 2015). Four design elements have been associated to the
personalization movement (Olofson et. al, 2018) which are shown in
the Figure 3.

Figure 3
Design Elements of Personalized Learning Approach

Personalized
Competency-based
Learning Plans
Graduation Requirements

4 Design Elements
Flexible Learning
Student Ownership
Pathways
And Agency

Flexible Pathways
∙ Learning activities must be meaningful and relevant to
learners, driven by their interests, and often are self-initiated.

∙ Students are provided the opportunity to choose in-school and

out-of-school learning modalities that are attuned to their
socio economic capability, interests and needs.

Personalized Learning Plans

∙ Learning plans are co-crafted by students with their parents and
teachers which best suit their needs, interests, and abilities.
This plan creates a customized approach that uniquely
responds to the ability and interest profile of the learner.

∙ Students are encouraged to identify their own interests,

passions, and strengths and integrate these, in partnership with
educators, into meaningful learning experiences with clear
goals.

Competency-Based Graduation Requirements

∙ Competency standards are made clear to students at the
 beginning of the course as well as and how these are to
be assessed at the end.

∙ Teachers must continuously assess student learning against

clearly defined standards and goals and students’ input into
the assessment process is essential.

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 Student Ownership and Agency
∙ Teacher refrains from imposing or fully controlling the
pathways of learning. Instead, student and teacher
collaborates in designing learning activities that will help
them meet the competency based-graduation
requirements.

∙ Students will work with the teacher to develop a

challenge, problem, or idea clarify learning goals,
envision the assessment, and create a personal learning
plan.

∙ Ownership within the context of personalized learning

also requires students to set, monitor, and reflect on their
personal progress towards their set learning goals. This is
a way to empower them with ownership over their own
work and progress.

The table below provides a list of of commonly applied

teaching strategies under CLA, DIA and PLA.

∙ Students must also have access to real-time feedback

and performance data for self-monitoring.
Table 2 Teaching Strategies According to Approach

Traditional Instructional Approach Approach Learning

Approach Approach

Thin-Pair-Share Jigsaw II Tiered Lessons Choice

Lecture Team-Game Boards Team Wikis
Teacher-demo Drills Tournaments (TGT) Graphic Organizers Web- Group Blogs
Recitation Student-Teams Achievement Quests Personal Vlogs Discussion
Student Report Role Play Division (STAD) Numbered Learning Logs Threads Chat Groups
Games Heads Inside-Outside circle Learning Contracts Gallery Polling
Cooperative Differentiated Walk Project e-Portfolio
Learning Instructional Personalized

In summary, as you progress from a beginning career stage educator

into a distinguished career stage teacher, you will definitely grow in
your teaching competencies in using a Learner-Centered Pedagogical
Approach which now favors heavily on the Personalized learning
Approach. This is primarily due to the availability of education
technology tools that can be accessed by both students and teachers
alike.

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Application Now that you have a better and deeper
understanding of how a learner-centred
pedagogy approach looks like, it’s now a great
time to integrate those lessons in our personal
belief system.

You are now tasked to create a Powerpoint

Presentation showcasing your future teaching practices that applies
the elements, features and strategies of a learner Centered Pedagogy.
Try to provide a brief answer to each question in your slides and
present this to your peers and teacher.

Guide Questions for the Powerpoint Presentation:

∙ In what way will I invite students to express their thoughts
and opinions to their peers?
That probably their peers could help them with it and that is better to
share thoughts to sympathize and help each other and so that all of
them could understand each others basis of their opinions all of them
would have open minds and make their relationship strong by
learning to coming into terms or realized that it is important to
respect people’s different opinions but challenge their stand.
∙ In what way can I create an environment of safety for my
students to respectfully disagree with one another (and me)?
For me the way I can create a healthy environment for people with
different opinions is an environment that is critical and mature.
Where people not only showcase their ideas and opinions but are able
to share the significance and that it comes with a responsibility for
 yourself to deeply understand and enhance your stand as well as to
give effort in making people understand your point though they don't
need to agree to it literally. Where people could also be critical in
deeming other people’s opinions keen in seeking where other
people’s opinions are coming from and just generally open. An
environment that does not welcome avoid toxic qualities and promote
healthy arguments for wider range of understanding and views.
∙ In what way will I provide my students with the opportunity to
reflect on their learning?

∙ In what way will I provide the opportunity for my students to see

the growth of their work over time?
I think the best way is to challenge their retention by grouping
students and provided with a task that takes their responsibility to
produce an output through their collaboration. Through collaboration
work they may see their progress in interdependence since they
discusses with their peers and their self-regulation learning.

Closure Your patience and persistence finally paid off. Bravo for a job well
done in finishing lesson 1.2. I hope that by becoming aware of
different approaches to facilitate a more student-centered teaching,
you now know how to design and plan your future teaching practice
in a way that would be best serve the diverse interest, needs and
abilities of your students.

In Lesson 1.3, you will learn about the evolution of learning theories
that have served as the backbone and framework of teaching
practices. This lesson will help you see the impact of the evolution
of learning theories and its impact in shifting the field of education
from a teacher centered teaching approach to that of a student-
centered pedagogical approach for 21st century learners.

LESSON 1.3
Module 1 FACILITATING LEARNER CENTERED TEACHING
No. and
Title

Lesson 1.3 Learning Theories

No. and
Title

Learning a. Explain the basic principle of the different theories of

Outcomes learning. b. Make a simple plan applying the primary laws of
learning

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 c. Determine how to use rewards in the learning process more
effectively d. Explain Tolman’s purposive behaviorism
e. Explain Banduras’s social learning theory.
f. Give specific applications of each theory in teaching.

Time Frame 5 hours/1 week

Introduction With new researches, explanations provided but the basic principles of
behaviorism appeared not satisfy all learning scenarios. New theories
came into view which maintained some of the behaviorist concepts but
excluded others, and added new ideas which later came to be associated
with the cognitive views of learning. The neo-behaviorist, then, were
transitional group, bridging the gap behaviorism and cognitive theories
learning.

Activity ACTIVITY 1 (BEHAVIORISM)

1. Observation
a. Choose a place where you can observe adult-child interactions –
such as mall, in church, parks or at the playground, etc. Spend one
hour observing such adult-child interactions. Focus your attention
on the stimulus – response – consequence pattern you observe.
b. Describe the consequences you observe. (It is better to write or
scribble the details on the spot or as soon as you finish your
observation).

ACTIVITY 2 (CONNECTIONISM)

Primary Law

How I would apply the Primary Law

Law of Readiness

Assess students’ prior his readiness before needing his

knowledge for immediate response teaching strategy that best

suits to their level of learning.

Law of Effect. Indicate

Specifically how you will
use positive/negative
reinforcements (rewards)
There is a stronger connection between stimuli and response when there is a
consequence and a reward. I will use positive reinforcement to encourage
student to participate so that they could build positive habit in school. Then I
will use negative reinforcement if ever a bad habit among my students is
perpatuating. This is how I will use these so that children move to balance
their behavior in there own ways.

Law of Exercise
 This where S-R is practiced often and the result of incoming S-R will
have stronger connection.

ACTIVITY 3
Working on Maze

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ACTIVITY 4
Reflecting Chart of Tolman and Bandura
Reflecting on the different theories of both psychologists. Write your own
theory as a future teacher.

TOLMAN YOUR BANDURA YOUR

REFLECTIO REFLECTIO
N N

Activity 5: WORD PUZZLE/GARDEN OF HERBS

What are the herbs approved by the Department of Health?

ACAPULKOCVBNLLKBMOTSAANGGUBATWCMPNBHL
PIFDSGFODQBAWANGSDXCUHK FAANLSAMBONGNQ
W
ZZYXCACVBNMTDTK DZACGVYNHGSRIAL GQBPUAS
AQFBNUYEOXAONYERBABUENALCSWDASDFGRESTJ
PANSITPANSITANONIYOGNIYOGANASF

1. For ringworm and other skin (fungal) infections.

2. For non-insulin dependent diabetic patients
3. For blood pressure control.
4. For use antiseptic disinfect wounds for mouthwash or tooth
decay and gum infection.
5. For cough and asthma

August 1, 2020
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 6. For intestinal worms, particularly ascaris and trichina.
7. For urinary stones
8. For mouthwash
9. For arthritis and gout
10. For relief from body aches and pains.

Analysis Activity 1: BBEHAVIORISM

Answer the questions.

1. What kind of stimuli for children’s and adult behavior did you
observe?

Sometimes whenever the adult gets very tired from working in its store
accommodating so many customers the adult would suddenly get grumpy
when she realized his child is not at their house but is at another house.
Thinking the child could have been so sweaty from playing non stop when
he needed to be fresh as newly bathed the adult would then make a
‘sssstttt’ sound and shout the child’s name as if calling. Then the child
would then come running back to their house scared and aggressively
drying his sweat off from his forehead with his wet shirt because normally
when this happens the child knows what feeling is there behind that
calling. And the adult now often does this like a routine every afternoon.
But when the child got home he did not get scolded.

2. What kinds of behaviors on the part of children elicit reinforcement

and punishment consequences from the adult?

When the child does not respond or when the child does respond but in a
way that is not expected to be the response to the stimulus of the adult.

3. What kind of behaviors of adults are reinforced or punished by the

children?

Well, I don’t think children can literally punish their parents but there are
few ways children can reinforce things to their parents one is when they
disagree to the stimuli of the adult they will counter it with a behavior such
as throwing a tantrum and mostly parents do not want to deal with this and
it is both like a response the stimulus of the children and the consequence
to the adults’ stimulus. The adult is reinforced to the consequence of its
own stimulus with this kind of response from the children.

4. What kinds of reinforcement and punishments seem to be most

“successful”?

The most successful punishment is when the adult expresses angry feelings
if the stimuli is not responded or get the wrong response such as the adult
expecting the child to give obeying response and disrespects the purpose of
the stimuli. The child is reinforced to give the expected response or as a
consequence the child is punished in a way that he gets scared with the
‘sssssttttt’ calling even though sometimes there are no feelings of anger
behind it but if he does not want to be punished he responds to the stimuli.
 5. Given this experience, what are your thoughts about operant
conditioning? Do you think children reinforce and punish adults
reinforce and punish them? How might the two be
interdependent?

We can see that it is like a process. Although a response to a stimuli is

not what exactly is expected it still happen. A created stimuli for a
response can create a stimuli within as consequence and maybe there
can be more stimuli within the main depending on the response or
consequence. There can be a reinforcement of another creatore as the
consequence to the other creator’s stimulus. Every component exist
for it’s own purpose but there is still an observable connection in
general context. And still they give place to another component to
exist as its own I think that is how it is interdependent.

Activity 3: WORKING ON A MAZE

1. How did you solve maze A.? What strategy did you use? (trial and
error, examined the maze before proceeding with your pen etc.

To solve a maze is to acquire what is in the maze, looking for the

beginning and end of the maze or make a tentative map in your
memory thus allowing your memory to respond to the stimuli of the
maze as the signs are now knowledge.

2. Was it easier to solve maze B? Why?

It is easier because we learned the signs there in the maze and

developed knowledge about it. Assuming it can be similar to maze B
we use our knowledge of meaning stimuli so maze a and connect it
with the new stimuli of maze b. The knowledge we acquire to activate
a response in maze a can be used in maze b. There is already a prior
knowledge since we experience the things present in initial stimuli so
we just need to connect new knowledge in our response in the new
stimuli.

Activity 5: WORD PUZZLE/GARDEN OF HERBS

Reflection Questions;

1. As a student, what factor influence learning?

I think interaction and communication with others where we could

retain information and share with others what we know. Learning is
exploring information and sources and discovering new things that
we are able to apply in our knowledge and to be able to survive
daily challenges and becoming. The nature of humans that is
curious and desire to attain our purpose and to experience really
influences us all to learn. These are fueled by motivation by people
older who have more experiences that inspire children to learn.
Also, with all the challenges that exist on earth, it influences our
passion to learn so that we would be able to find solutions and
ways to flourish.

2. What are the negative implications of technology to intellectual and

social development of young Children?
Since everything with technology is convenient; sources, information,
everything is ready and so much open that it can be the last of the students
to copy works instead of deeply understanding lecture with big efforts.
Technology is indeed the bigger breakthrough of humans but sometimes
with students is can encourage plagiarism, procrastination and such. It is not
directly technology’s work but the people’s mindset wherein they would
then depend too much in a negative way to convenience the technology
serves to us. From here students would then not have any opportunity to
practice his intellect and self-regulatory learning would then be disregarded
may result to incompetency whenever the person arrive in a stage of his life
where such qualities are needed to produce quality output.

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Abstraction People learn through repetition. Learner is a passive blank slate shaped by
environmental stimuli, both positive and negative reinforcement. This
topic helps you understand behaviorism and its connection to learning
reinforcement.

BEHAVIORISM

This particular learning theory assumes that the learner is essentially

passive, simply responding to their environmental stimuli. Behavioral
theorists therefore believe that a learner basically begins as a clean slate,
and their behavior is shaped by positive/negative reinforcement

The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and

measurable behavior. It emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned
through conditioning and reinforcement (rewards and punishment). It
does not give much attention to the mind, and the possibility of thought
processes occurring in the mind. Contributions in the
development of the behaviorist theory
largely came from Pavlov, Watson,
Thorndike and Skinner.

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiological is well

known for his work in classical conditioning
or stimulus substitution. Pavlov’s most
renowned experiment involved meat, a dog
and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was measuring
the dog’s salivation in order to study
digestion. This is when he stumbled upon
classical conditioning.

Pavlov’s Experiment.

Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus) caused no

response from the dog. Placing dog food (unconditioned stimulus) in front
of the dog initiated salivation (unconditioned response). During
conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the dog was
presented with food. After conditioning, the ringing of the bell
(conditioned stimulus) alone produce salivation (conditioned response).
This is classical conditioning.

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 \\\\\
Figure 1
Pavlov’s Experiment Schematic

PAVLOV ALSO HAD THE FOLLOWING FINDINGS:

Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to salivate at the

sound of the bell, it well salivate at the other similar sounds

Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will
eventually cease in response to the bell.
Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be “recovered” after
an elapsed time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented
with food.

Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar

bells (stimuli) and discern which bell would result in the presentation of
food and which would not.

Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to

associate the bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as a
light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is rung. Eventually the
dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell.

CONNECTIONISM

Connectionism is a learning theory developed by George Siemens and

Steven Downs. It stresses the connections and combinatorial creativity.
All

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the knowledge is out there – it’s a matter of making the connections.
Siemens (2004) states, “A community is the clustering of similar areas of
interest that allows for interaction, sharing, dialoguing, and thinking
together.”
For example, if a learner is trying to learn how Donald Trump has risen to
power, they may start on a Facebook post that a friend made, which could
then take them to an article, but the text is dense and confusing, so instead
the student scroll down to the comments sections and finds another link to
blog, and from the blog there is an embedded YouTube video that they
watch to more fully understand the issue. The student has used various
forms of gathering information using the internet, and has gleaned the
most salient information by using many different modes to more fully
understand the issue.

Edward Lee Thorndike

1904-1990

Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism theory gave us the original S-R

framework of behavioral psychology. More than a hundred years ago he
wrote a text book entitled, Educational Psychology. He was the first one
to use this term. He explained that learning is the result of associations
forming between stimuli and responses. Such associations or “habits”
become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R
pairings. The model for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which
certain responses came to be repeated than others because of rewards. The
main principle of connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that
learning could be adequately explained without considering any
unobservable internal states. Thorndike’s theory on connectionism stated
that learning has taken place when a strong connection or bond between
stimulus and response is formed. He came up with three primary laws.

Edward Thorndike (1898) is famous in psychology for his work on

learning theory that lead to the development of operant conditioning
within Behaviorism. Whereas classical conditioning depends on
developing associations between events, operant conditioning involves
learning from the consequences of our behavior.
Skinner wasn’t the first psychologist to study learning by consequences.
Indeed, Skinner's theory of operant conditioning is built on the ideas of
Edward Thorndike.

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 Figure 1
Simplified graph of the result of the puzzle box experiment.

He placed a cat in the puzzle box, which was encouraged to escape to

reach a scrap of fish placed outside. Thorndike would put a cat into the
box and time how long it took to escape. The cats experimented with
different ways to escape the puzzle box and reach the fish.
Eventually they would stumble upon the lever which opened the cage.
When it had escaped it was put in again, and once more the time it took to
escape was noted. In successive trials the cats would learn that pressing
the lever would have favorable consequences and they would adopt this
behavior, becoming increasingly quick at pressing the lever.
Edward Thorndike put forward a “Law of effect” which stated that any
behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be
repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is likely
to be stopped.
THORDIKE’S THEORY ON CONNECTIONISM stated that learning
has taken place when a strong connection or bond between stimulus and
response is formed. He came up with three primary laws:

Law of Effect.
The Law of Effect stated that a
connection between a stimulus and
response is strengthened when the
consequence is positive (reward) and
the connection between the stimulus
and the response is weakened when
the consequence is negative.
Thorndike later on, revised this “law”
when he found that negative reward,
seemingly pleasurable consequences
do not necessarily motivate
performance.

Law of Exercise.
Tell us that the more an S-R (stimulus response) bond in practice the
stronger it will become. “Practice makes perfect” seem to be associated
with this. However, like the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to
revise when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not
necessarily enhance performance.

Law of Readiness.
This states that, the more readiness the learner has to respond to the

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stimulus, the stronger will be the bond between them. When a person is
ready to a stimulus and is not made to respond, it becomes annoying to
the person. Example, if the teacher says, “Okay we will now watch the
movie (stimulus) you’ve been waiting for.” And suddenly the power goes
off, the students will feel frustrated because they were ready to respond to
the stimulus but were prevented from doing so. Likewise, if the person is
not at all ready to respond to stimuli and is asked to respond, that
becomes annoying. For instance, the teacher asks the question and
expects the students to respond right away when he is still not ready. This
will be annoying to the student. This is why teacher should remember to
say the question first, and wait for a few seconds before calling on anyone
to answer.

Principles Derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism:

1. Learning requires both practice and reward (laws of

effect/exercise)
2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they
belong to the same action (law of readiness)
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered
situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

Behaviorism: Tolman & Bandura

Generalization: Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

Usually, people who worked on a maze activity, which you just did,
would say they found the second maze easier. This is because they say
that the two mazes were identical, except that the entrance and exit points
had been reversed. Their experience in Maze A was much easier for them
to answer Maze B. People are building mind maps of events that they
perceived. These mental maps help them to respond to other things or
tasks later, particularly if they see the similarity. You may start
responding with trial and error (behavioral), but later on your response
becomes more internally driven (cognitive perspective). This is what neo-
behaviorism is all about. It has behavioral aspects, but it also has a
cognitive perspective.

There are two neo-behaviorism-reflecting theories that stand out. Edward

Tolman's purposive behaviorism and Albert Bandura's theory of social
learning. Both theories are influenced by behaviorism (focused on
internal elements and learning).

Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism

Purpose behaviorism has also been referred to as sign learning theory

and is often seen as a link between behaviorism and cognitive theory.
Tolman 's theory was based on the psychological views of the Gestalt
Psychologist and the behaviorist John Watson.

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Tolman believes that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves
building belief in the acquisition of knowledge about the environment and
then the discovery of knowledge through purposeful and objective
behavior.

Tolman stated in his sign theory that an organism

learns by pursuing
signs for a goal, i.e. learning is acquired through
meaningful behavior. He stressed that the
organized aspect of learning is acquired through
meaningful behavior. He emphasized that the
organized aspect of learning is that the stimuli
allowed in are not connected by simple one-to-one
switches to the outgoing reactions. Rather, the
incoming impulses are usually worked out and elaborated in the central
control room into a tentative cognitive environment map. And it is this
tentative map, indicating routes and pathways, and environmental
relations that finally determines what kind of response the animal will
finally make.

Tolman's form of behaviorism underscored the relationship between

stimuli rather than stimulus-response. Tolman said that a new stimulus
(sign) would be associated with already meaningful stimuli (significant
ones) through a series of pairings; there was no need for reinforcement to
establish learning. In your labyrinth activity, the new stimulus or "sign"
(maze B) has become associated with the already meaningful stimulus,
the signicate (maze A). So you may have connected the two stimuli,
Labyrinth A and Labyrinth B, and used your knowledge and experience
in Labyrinth A to learn how to respond to Labyrinth A.

Tolman’s Key Concepts

This is a learning theory that was in response to

behaviorism. Psychologist who promoted this
idea claimed that behaviorism failed to explain
cognition. In this theory, mind is an information
processor. It emphasizes understanding the
concept as a whole instead of just the piece.

This is the learning theory that was taught in

developing online education using Blooms
Taxonomy. Examples of cognitivist strategies
for learning higher-level thinking are starting a lesson with a hook to
create interest, a review quiz to promote prior learning, using learning
outcomes, chunking content into organized bite-sized pieces, using
graphic organizers, and the student takes on an active role on learning.
The teacher gives lots of encouragement and positive feedback.

Social Learning Theory:

Albert Bandura
The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of

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observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions
of others. Bandura (1977) states: “Learning would be exceedingly
laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the
effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most
human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from
observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed,
and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.
Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous
reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental
influences.

The component processes underlying observational learning are:

1. Attention - includes modeled events (distinctiveness, affective

valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer
characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past
reinforcement).

2. Retention - includes symbolic coding, cognitive organization,

symbolicrehearsal, motor rehearsal)

3. Motor Reproduction - includes physical capabilities, self-observation

of reproduction, accuracy of feedback.

4. Motivation, including external, vicarious and self-reinforcement.

1. People can learn by observing the behavior of the others and the
outcomes of those behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning.
4. Social learning can be considered a bridge or a transition between
behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories.

People are often to reinforced for modeling the behavior of others.

Bandura suggested that the environment also reinforces modeling. This
is several possible ways;
1. The observer is reinforced by the model
2. The observer reinforce by a third person
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s
behavior vicariously.

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 1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and
punishment have indirect effects on learning.
2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an
individual exhibits a behavior that has been learned
3. The expectation of reinforcement process that promote learning.

1. Learning without performance. (through observation and actual

imitation)
2. Cognitive processing during learning (attention)
3. Expectations (consequences)
4. Reciprocal causation (person, behavior and
environment)
5. Modeling (live models, and symbolic models)

1. Attention – mental focus or concentration, willingness of the

child to observe and mimic the behavior of a model.
2. Retention – To encode the behavior in the memory, ability to
store information.
3. Motor Production – To actually perform the behavior
observe
4. Motivation/Reinforcement – Force that drives one to act.

COGNITIVISM

Cognitivism revived the psychological study of thinking, developing

scientifically rigorous ways of studying unobservable mental activity. In
this module you will encounter different questions on how cognitivism
brings on the development of learning, and you will find answers or
solution to these questions.

What is Cognitivism?

Cognitivism is "the psychology of learning which emphasizes human

cognition or intelligence as a special endowment enabling man to form
hypotheses and develop intellectually" (Cognitivism) and is also known
as cognitive development. The underlying concepts of cognitivism
involve how we think and gain knowledge. Cognitivism involves
examining learning, memory, problem solving skills, and intelligence.
Cognitive theorists may want to understand how problem solving changes
throughout childhood, how cultural differences affect the way we view
our own

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academic achievements, language development, and much more.
(Feldman, Cognitivism)

How Does Learning Occur?

Cognitive theories stress the acquisition of knowledge and internal mental

structures and, as such, are closer to the rationalist end of the
epistemology continuum (Bower & Hilgard, 1981). Learning is equated
with discrete changes between states of knowledge rather than with
changes in the probability of response. Cognitive theories focus on the
conceptualization of students’ learning processes and address the issues of
how information is received, organized, stored, and retrieved by the mind.
Learning is concerned not so much with what learners do but with what
they know and how they come to acquire it (Jonassen, 1991b). Knowledge
acquisition is described as a mental activity that entails internal coding
and structuring by the learner. The learner is viewed as a very active
participant in the learning process.

Which factors Influence Learning?

Cognitivism, like behaviorism, emphasizes

the role that environmental conditions play
in facilitating learning. Instructional
explanations, demonstrations, illustrative
examples and matched non-examples are all
considered to be instrumental in guiding
student learning. Similarly, emphasis is
placed on the role of practice with corrective
feedback. Up to this point, little difference
can be detected between these two theories.
However, the “active” nature of the learner
is perceived quite differently.

The cognitive approach focuses on the mental activities of the learner that
lead up to a response and acknowledges the processes of mental planning,
goal-setting, and organizational strategies (Shuell, 1986). Cognitive
theories contend that environmental “cues” and instructional components
alone cannot account for all the learning that results from an instructional
situation. Additional key elements include the way that learners attend to,
code, transform, rehearse, store and retrieve information. Learners’
thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and values are also considered to be influential
in the learning process (Winne, 1985). The real focus of the cognitive
approach is on changing the learner by encouraging him/her to use
appropriate learning strategies.

How Does Transfer Occur?

According to cognitive theories, transfer is a function of how information

is stored in memory (Schunk, 1991). When a learner understands how to
apply knowledge in different contexts, then transfer has occurred.

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Understanding is seen as being composed of a knowledge base in the
form of rules, concepts, and discriminations (Duffy & Jonassen, 1991).
Prior knowledge is used to establish boundary constraints for identifying
the similarities and differences of novel information. Not only must the
knowledge itself be stored in memory but the uses of that knowledge as
well. Specific instructional or real-world events will trigger particular
responses, but the learner must believe that the knowledge is useful in a
given situation before he will activate it (response).

Classroom Implications

In a classroom environment, there are many variables that influence and

contribute to learning. When creating and implementing a learning
environment, it is imperative that the teachers not only create a setting
that promotes learning, but also take the time to understand each child.
Classrooms are widely diverse and complex. Students learn differently
and are at various developmental levels. Teachers who properly manage
their classrooms and establish expectations will be able to incorporate
diverse teaching philosophies and create an excellent learning
environment for each student. It is important that teachers create a
learning environment that encourages students to do their best and makes
learning interesting. This creates a motivational climate within the
classroom.

There are two factors that are critical to motivate students, value and
effort. (Classroom Management) Students must understand that the work
they are performing is worthwhile. Value measures the importance of a
student's work to himself and others. Effort is the amount of time and
energy students put into their work. Understanding the value of academic
tasks and the effort needed to complete those tasks can motivate students
to perform better in the classroom environment (Classroom Management)

Cognitive Development Implied in the Classroom (“Piaget’s Theory”)

∙ Teachers should carefully assess the current stage of a child's

cognitive development and only assign tasks for which the child is
prepared. The child can then be given tasks that are tailored to
their developmental level and are motivating.
∙ Teachers must provide children with learning opportunities that
enable them to advance through each developmental stage. This is
achieved by creating disequilibrium. Teachers should maintain a
proper balance between actively guiding the child and allowing
opportunities for them to explore things on their own to learn
through discovery.
∙ Teachers should be concerned with the process of learning rather
than the end product. For example, the teacher should observe the
way a child manipulates play dough instead of concentrating on a
finished shape.
∙ Children should be encouraged to learn from each other. Hearing
others' views can help breakdown egocentrism. It is important for
teachers to provide multiple opportunities for small group
activities.
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∙ Piaget believed that teachers should act as guides to children's

learning processes and that the curriculum should be adapted to
individual needs and developmental levels.

Examples of Cognitive Games in the Classroom

Cognitive games are designed to help stimulate various regions of the

brain. These games are used to improve reflexes, help people learn,
promote critical thinking, and help people learn different patterns of
association. Cognitive games are helpful when used to learn a foreign
language and memorize new material. Various learning techniques are
used in the classroom because there are various learning styles. There are
many games that promote and influence cognitive learning.

Examples of cognitive games include:

Educational Websites and Computer Games

Most educational websites computer games focus on stimulating a young
child's senses while engaging them in various cognitive tasks. Below are
three of the many learning websites that are available to enhance
cognitive development in young children. Example, PBS kids Educational
Games, Spelling City, Cognitive Fun Games etc.

Sorting Games
Sorting games require individuals to utilize recognition and reasoning.
Teachers can engage children in games in which the children sort items by
various criteria, such as color, size, texture, and other physical attributes
of the items. A more advanced approach to sorting is discussing how the
items are similar. This process promotes critical thinking.

Flash Cards
Flash cards can be used various tasks. This involves notecards or an even
scrap of paper in which two parts of information is written on either side
of the notecard. These can be as simple as having cards with a red dot on
one side and the word red on the other. Flash cards are typically used in a
classroom for drills or in private study. These cards are used to aid
memorization. Pre-made flash cards are available for many subjects.
Teachers and students may also make homemade flash cards, depending
on how and what they are studying. Flash cards may also be personalized
and printed from certain websites. (Flashcards) Flash cards can be utilized
into various games as well.

Board Games
Teachers may include board games in their classrooms to promote
cognitive development. Unlike computer and video games, boardgames
are tangible. Children can manipulate different pieces in the game. Board
games can be
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implemented to enhance mathematical and linguistic skills and enhance a
child's ability to understand and follow directions. Example, monopoly
and bingo

Puzzles
Finding a solution to a puzzle develops a child's problem solving
[Link] who actively solve puzzles
that they are able to touch and piece together
are more likely to understand certain concepts
and develop their own theories about those
concepts.

CONSTRUCTIVISM

In this unit you will be introduce to many of

the issues understanding and applying
constructivism and constructivist principles for instructional design
purposes.

Students learn new things through experience. They build knowledge

through experiences and interactions. In cognitive learning, the students
are taught to do something in constructivism. The students are encouraged
to discover something on their own; this is known as The major
difference is that cognitive learning is about building on prior knowledge,
and constructivism is about building new ideas and concepts based on
your own discoveries.

What are the principles of constructivism?

1. Knowledge is constructed, rather than innate, or passively absorbed

Constructivism's central idea is that human learning is constructed, that

learners build new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning.
This prior knowledge influences what new or modified knowledge an
individual will construct from new learning experiences (Phillips, 1995).

2. Learning is an active process.

The second notion is that learning is an active rather than a passive

process. The passive view of teaching views the learner as ‘an empty
vessel’ to be filled with knowledge, where constructivism states that
learners construct meaning only through active engagement with the
world (such as experiments or real-world problem solving). Information
may be passively received, but understanding cannot be, for it must come
from making meaningful connections between prior knowledge, new
knowledge, and the processes involved in learning.
3. All Knowledge is socially constructed

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Learning is a social activity - it is something we do together, in
interaction with each other, rather than an abstract concept (Dewey,
1938). For example, Vygotsky (1978), believed that community plays a
central role in the process of "making meaning." For Vygotsky, the
environment in which children grow up will influence how they think and
what they think [Link], all teaching and learning is a matter of
sharing and negotiating socially constituted knowledge. For example,
Vygotsky (1978) states cognitive development stems from social
interactions from guided learning within the zone of proximal
development as children and their partner's co construct knowledge.
4. All knowledge is Personal
Each individual learner has a distinctive point of view, based on existing
knowledge and [Link] means that same lesson, teaching or activity
may result in different learning by each pupil, as their subjective
interpretations [Link] principle appears to contradict the view the
knowledge is socially constructed. Fox (2001, p. 30) argues (a) that
although individuals have their own personal history of learning,
nevertheless they can share in common knowledge, and (b) that although
education is a social process, powerfully influenced by cultural factors,
nevertheless cultures are made up of sub- cultures, even to the point of
being composed of sub-cultures of one. Cultures and their knowledge-
base are constantly in a process of change and the knowledge stored by
individuals is not a rigid copy of some socially constructed template. In
learning a culture, each child changes that culture.
5. Learning exists in the mind

The constructivist theory posits that knowledge can only exist within
the human mind, and that it does not have to match any real world
reality (Driscoll, 2000). Learners will be constantly trying to develop
their own individual mental model of the real world from their
perceptions of that world. As they perceive each new experience,
learners will continually update their own mental models to reflect the
new information, and will, therefore, construct their own
interpretation of reality.

What are the three main types of constructivism?

Typically, this continuum is divided into three broad categories:

Cognitive constructivism based on the work of Jean Piaget, social

constructivism based on the work of Lev Vygotsky, and radical
constructivism. According to the GSI Teaching and Resource Center
(2015, p.5): Cognitive constructivism states knowledge is something
that is actively constructed by learners based on their existing cognitive
structures. Therefore, learning is relative to their stage of cognitive
development.

Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating

new information to existing knowledge, and enabling them to make
the

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 appropriate modifications to their existing intellectual framework to
accommodate that information. According to social constructivism
learning is a collaborative process, and knowledge develops from
individuals' interactions with their culture and society.

Social constructivism was developed by Lev Vygotsky (1978, ) who

suggested that, every function in the child's cultural development
appears twice: first, on the social level and, later on, on the individual
level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the
child (intrapsychological).

Radical constructivism was developed by Ernst von Glasersfeld (1974)

and states that all knowledge is constructed rather than perceived
through senses. Learners construct new knowledge on the foundations of
their existing knowledge. However, radical constructivism states that the
knowledge individuals create tells us nothing about reality, and only
helps us to function in your environment. Thus, knowledge is invented
not discovered. The humanly constructed reality is all the time being
modified and interacting to fit ontological reality, although it can never
give a ‘true picture’ of it. (Ernest, 1994, )

What is the role of the teacher in a constructivist classroom?

The primary responsibility of the teacher is to create a collaborative
problem-solving environment where students become active participants
in their own learning. From this perspective, a teacher acts as a facilitator
of learning rather than an instructor. The teacher makes sure he/she
understands the students' preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity
to address them and then build on them (Oliver, 2000).

Scaffolding is a key feature of effective teaching, where the adult

continually adjusts the level of his or her help in response to the learner's
level of performance. In the classroom, scaffolding can include modeling
a skill, providing hints or cues, and adapting material or activity (Copple
& Bredekamp, 2009).

Features of a Constructivist Classroom

Tam (2000) lists the following four basic characteristics of constructivist
learning environments, which must be considered when implementing
constructivist teaching strategies:
1) Knowledge will be shared between teachers and
students.
2) Teachers and students will share authority.
3) The teacher's role is one of a facilitator or guide.
4) Learning groups will consist of small numbers of heterogeneous students.

Now let us turn to applying what we have learned about learning theories

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Application that guide the teaching practice of educators like your. As an example,
try thinking of how to apply Thorndike’s Connectionism by following
the instructions below.
a. Choose a topic you want to teach
b. Discuss the ways you can apply the three primary laws
while you teach the topic.

Prepare a 2-minute recorded speech on your response. Request a

fellow student and/ or teacher to comment on it.

Closure Congratulations learner for finishing this lesson! You may have arrived
already at a conclusion at this point that there is no single or perfect
learning theory that applies to every student. What is more important to
remember is that, for the novice learner, behaviorism will be applied to
novice learner where they study fact based on information, cognitivism
will be applied to established learner where they make connections using
fact based information, while constructivism will be applied to
sophisticated-learners where they use fact based information and
knowledge of connections to create greater understanding of a content
area.

The typical classroom has myriads of learners who have different

experiences, needs and learning styles. Teaching and learning
methodologies have to be constantly revised, changed and modified.
Therefore, different learning theories should be utilized to accommodate a
variety of learner, in order to create an environment that will be beneficial
to both the teacher the learners.

You are about to begin Lesson 4 in the next page. This lesson will help
you understand why becoming knowledgeable about learner- centred
pedagogical approaches and knowing the learning theories on which they
are founded will help you successfully develop your skillset or teaching
competencies.

Said teaching competencies of a Filipino teacher like you in the near

future are expected to become proficient in what is referred to as the
PHILIPPINE PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS FOR TEACHERS or
PPST.

Let us now proceed to Lesson 4.

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LESSON 1.4
Module 1 FACILITATING LEARNER CENTERED TEACHING
No. and
Title

Lesson 1.4 Outcomes of Teacher Education

No. and
Title
 Learning 1. Set out clear expectations of teaching
Outcomes standards for professional development from
beginning to distinguished career stage of
teachers;
2. Actively embrace a continuing effort to
attaining teaching proficiency; and
3. Apply uniform measure to assess teacher
performance, identify needs, and provide
support for professional development

Time Frame 5 hours/1 week

Introduction Welcome to your Lesson 1.4!

In desiring to become a teacher someday, you will in fact play a crucial

role in nation building. Put in mind that through quality teachers, the
Philippines can develop holistic learners who are steeped in values,
equipped with 21st century skills, and able to propel the country to
development and progress. Once you graduate and become a licensed
professional teacher, you will now be an official member of the
community of educators in the country.
Under the Department of Education’s VISION of producing: “Filipinos
who passionately love their country and whose values and competencies
enable them to realize their full potential and contribute meaningfully to
building the nation” (DepED Order No. 36, s. 2013).

Keep in mind, dear future teacher, that so much research evidences

unequivocally show that good teachers are vital to raising student
achievement, i.e., quality learning of your students is will be dependent
upon learner-centered teaching. Hence, enhancing yourself in terms of in
the 7 domains of teaching practice reflected in the Philippine
Professional

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Standards for Teachers should become of utmost importance to you.
Activity Activity 1: Concept Map of a Professional Teacher
Develop a concept map of a professional teacher as provided for in
the Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers.

Activity 2: WEB ORGANIZER

The teachers are not simply the implementers of the strategies in
teaching. They are the creators of the conditions of learning bedrock on
their personal, professional, and ethical qualities.

Identify the qualities of professional teacher. Fill in the concept

organizer below.

TEACHER as;

Individual

Patient

Knowledgeable

Passionate

Helpful

Flexible

Professional

Willing to improve

Able to manage things under stress and find solution to conflict

Collaborative

Responsible

Empathetic
Analysis Let us now reflect on your answers on the activities. Do so by responding
to the following questions.

1. What kind of stimuli for children’s and adult behavior did you
observe?

Sometimes whenever the adult gets very tired from working in its store
accommodating so many customers the adult would suddenly get
grumpy when she realized his child is not at their house but is at
another house. Thinking the child could have been so sweaty from
playing non stop when he needed to be fresh as newly bathed the
adult would then make a ‘sssstttt’ sound and shout the child’s name
as if calling. Then the child would then come running back to their
house scared and aggressively drying his sweat off from his
forehead with his wet shirt because normally when this happens the
child knows what feeling is there behind that calling. And the adult
now often does this like a routine every afternoon. But when the
child got home he did not get scolded.

2. What kinds of behaviors on the part of children elicit reinforcement

and punishment consequences from the adult?

When the child does not respond or when the child does respond but in
a way that is not expected to be the response to the stimulus of the
adult.

3. What kind of behaviors of adults are reinforced or punished by the

children?

Well, I don’t think children can literally punish their parents but there
are few ways children can reinforce things to their parents one is
when they disagree to the stimuli of the adult they will counter it
with a behavior such as throwing a tantrum and mostly parents do
not want to deal with this and it is both like a response the stimulus
of the children and the consequence to the adults’ stimulus. The
adult is reinforced to the consequence of its own stimulus with this
kind of response from the children.

4. What kinds of reinforcement and punishments seem to be most

“successful”?
 The most successful punishment is when the adult expresses angry
feelings if the stimuli is not responded or get the wrong response
such as the adult expecting the child to give obeying response and
disrespects the purpose of the stimuli. The child is reinforced to give
the expected response or as a consequence the child is punished in a
way that he gets scared with the ‘sssssttttt’ calling even though
sometimes there are no feelings of anger behind it but if he does not
want to be punished he responds to the stimuli.

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5. Given this experience, what are your thoughts about operant

conditioning? Do you think children reinforce and punish adults reinforce
and punish them? How might the two be interdependent?

We can see that it is like a process. Although a response to a stimuli is not

what exactly is expected it still happen. A created stimuli for a response
can create a stimuli within as consequence and maybe there can be more
stimuli within the main depending on the response or consequence. There
can be a reinforcement of another creatore as the consequence to the other
creator’s stimulus. Every component exist for it’s own purpose but there is
still an observable connection in general context. And still they give place
to another component to exist as its own I think that is how it is
interdependent.
Abstraction Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers

The Philippine Government has consistently pursued teacher quality

reforms through a number of initiatives. As a framework of teacher
quality, the National Competency-Based Teacher Standards (NCBTS)
was institutionalized through CHED Memorandum Order No. 52, s.
2007 and DepED Order No. 32, s. 2009. It emerged as part of the
implementation of the Basic Education Sector Reform Agenda
(BESRA), and was facilitated by drawing on the learning considerations
of programs, such as the Basic Education Assistance for Mindanao
(BEAM), the Strengthening Implementation of Visayas Education
(STRIVE) project and the Third Elementary Education Project (TEEP).

The K to 12 Reform (R.A. 10533) in 2013 has

changed the landscape of teacher quality
requirements in the Philippines. The reform
process warrants an equivalent supportive focus
on teacher quality – high quality teachers who
are properly equipped and prepared to assume
the roles and functions of a K to 12 teacher.

The Philippine Professional Standards for

Teachers, which is built on NCBTS,
complements the reform initiatives on teacher
quality from pre-service education to in-service training. It articulates
what constitutes teacher quality in the K to 12 Reform through well
defined domains, strands, and indicators that provide measures of
professional learning, competent practice, and effective engagement.
This set of standards makes explicit what teachers should know, be able
to do and value to achieve competence, improved student learning
outcomes, and eventually quality education. It is founded on teaching
philosophies of learner-centeredness, lifelong learning, and
inclusivity/inclusiveness, among others. The professional standards,
therefore, become a public statement of professional accountability that
can help teachers reflect on and assess their own practices as they aspire
for personal growth and professional development.

Teacher Quality in the Philippines

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The Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers defines teacher
quality in the Philippines. The standards describe the expectations of
teachers’ increasing levels of knowledge, practice and professional
engagement. At the same time, the standards allow for teachers’
growing understanding, applied with increasing sophistication across a
broader and more complex range of teaching/learning situations.

The following describes the breadth of 7 Domains that are required by

teachers to be effective in the 21st Century in the Philippines. Quality
teachers in the Philippines need to possess the following characteristics:

∙ Recognize the importance of mastery of content knowledge and

its interconnectedness within and across curriculum areas,
coupled with a sound and

. They apply developmentally appropriate and meaningful pedagogy

grounded on content knowledge and current research. They
display proficiency in Mother Tongue, Filipino and English to
facilitate the teaching and learning process, as well as exhibit the
needed skills in the use of communication strategies, teaching
strategies and technologies to promote high-quality learning
outcomes.

∙ Provide learning environments that are safe, secure, fair and

supportive in order to promote learner responsibility and
achievement. They create an environment that is learning-
focused and they efficiently manage learner behavior in a
physical and virtual space. They utilize a range of resources and
provide intellectually challenging and stimulating activities to
encourage constructive classroom interactions geared towards
the attainment of high standards of learning.

∙ Establish learning environments that are responsive to learner

diversity. They respect learners’ diverse characteristics and
experiences as inputs to the planning and design of learning
opportunities. They encourage the celebration of diversity in the
classroom and the need for teaching practices that are
differentiated to encourage all learners to be successful citizens
in a changing local and global environment.

∙ Interact with the national and local curriculum requirements. They

translate curriculum content into learning activities that are
relevant to learners and based on the principles of effective
teaching and learning. They apply their professional knowledge
to plan and design, individually or in collaboration with
colleagues, well-structured and sequenced lessons that are
contextually relevant, responsive to learners’ needs and
incorporate a range of teaching and learning resources. They
communicate learning goals to support learner participation,
understanding and achievement.

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 ∙ Apply a variety of assessment tools and strategies in monitoring,
evaluating, documenting and reporting learners’ needs, progress
and achievement. They use assessment data in a variety of ways
to inform and enhance the teaching and learning process and
programs. They provide learners with the necessary feedback
about learning outcomes that informs the reporting cycle and
enables teachers to select, organize and use sound assessment
processes.

∙ Establish school-community partnerships aimed at enriching the

learning environment, as well as the community’s engagement in
the educative process. They identify and respond to
opportunities that link teaching and learning in the classroom to
the experiences, interests and aspirations of the wider school
community and other key stakeholders. They understand and
fulfill their obligations in upholding professional ethics,
accountability and transparency to promote professional and
harmonious relationships with learners, parents, schools and the
wider community.

∙ Value personal growth and professional development and exhibit

high personal regard for the profession by maintaining qualities
that uphold the dignity of teaching such as caring attitude,
respect and integrity. They value personal and professional
reflection and learning to improve their practice. They assume
responsibility for personal growth and professional development
for lifelong learning.

PHILIPPINE PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS FOR TEACHERS

The 7 Domains of teacher practice comprise

of 37 strands that refer to more specific
dimensions of teacher practice.

Domain 1
Content Knowledge &Pedagogy
(7 strands)

1. Content knowledge and its application

within and across curriculum areas
2. Research-based knowledge and principles
of teaching and learning
3. Positive use of ICT
4. Strategies for promoting literacy and numeracy
5. Strategies for developing critical and creative thinking, as well as
other higher-order thinking skills
6. Mother Tongue, Filipino and English in teaching and
learning 7. Classroom communication strategies

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 Domain 2
Environment (6 stands)

1. Learner safety and security

2. Fair learning environment
3. Management of classroom structure and activities
4. Support for learner participation
5. Promotion of purposive learning
6. Management of learner behavior

Domain 3
Diversity of Learners (5 strands)

1. Learners’ gender, needs, strengths,

interests and experiences
2. Learners’ linguistic, cultural, socio
economic & religious backgrounds
3. Learners with disabilities,
giftedness and talents
4. Learners in difficult circumstances
5. Learners from indigenous groups

Domain 4
Curriculum and Planning (5 strands)

1. Planning and management of teaching and learning

process

2. Learning outcomes aligned with learning competencies

3. Relevance and responsiveness of learning programs
4. Professional collaboration to enrich teaching practice
5. Teaching and learning resources including ICT

Domain 5
Assessment and Reporting (5 strands)

1. Design, selection, organization and utilization of assessment

strategies
2. Monitoring and evaluation of learner progress and achievement
3. Feedback to improve learning
4. Communication of learner needs, progress and achievement to key
stakeholders
5. Use of assessment data to enhance teaching and learning practices
and programs

Domain 6
Community Linkages and Professional Engagement (4 strands)

1. Establishment of learning environments that is responsive to

community contexts Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers 7
2. Engagement of parents and the wider school community in the
educative process

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48
3. Professional ethics
4. School policies and procedures

Domain 7
Personal Growth and Professional Development (5 strands)

1. Philosophy of teaching
2. Dignity of teaching as a profession
3. Professional links with colleagues
4. Professional reflection and learning to improve practice
5. Professional development goals

Career Stages of Filipino Professional Teachers

Teacher professional development happens

in a continuum from beginning to
exemplary practice. Anchored on the
principle of lifelong learning, the set of
professional standards for teachers
recognizes the significance of a standards
framework that articulates developmental
progression as teachers develop, refine their
practice and respond to the complexities of
educational reforms.

The following statements, which define the work of teachers at different

career stages, make explicit the elements of high-quality teaching for the
21st century. They comprise descriptors that have been informed by
teachers’ understandings of what is required at each of the four Career
Stages. The descriptors represent a continuum of development within
the profession by providing a basis for attracting, preparing, developing
and supporting teachers.

Career Stage 1 or Beginning Teachers

have gained the qualifications recognized for entry into the teaching
profession.
have a strong understanding of the subjects/areas in which they are
trained in terms of content knowledge and pedagogy.
possess the requisite knowledge, skills and values that support the
teaching and learning process.
manage learning programs and have strategies that promote learning
based on the learning needs of their students.
seek advice from experienced colleagues to consolidate their teaching
practice.

Career Stage 2 or Proficient Teachers

professionally independent in the application of skills vital to the

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 teaching and learning process.
provide focused teaching programs that meet curriculum and
assessment requirements.
display skills in planning, implementing, and managing learning
actively engage in collaborative learning with the professional
community and other stakeholders for mutual growth and
advancement.
reflective practitioners who continually consolidate the knowledge,
skills and practices of Career Stage 1 teachers.

Career Stage 3 or Highly Proficient Teachers

consistently display a high level of performance in their teaching
practice.
manifest an in-depth and sophisticated understanding of the teaching
and learning process.
have high education-focused situation cognition, are more adept in
problem solving and optimize opportunities gained from experience.
work collaboratively with colleagues and provide them support and
mentoring to enhance their learning and practice.
continually seek to develop their professional knowledge and practice
by reflecting on their own needs, and those of their colleagues and
students.

Career Stage 4 or Distinguished Teachers

embody the highest standard for teaching grounded in global best
practices.
exhibit exceptional capacity to improve their own teaching practice
and that of others.
recognized as leaders in education, contributors to the profession and
initiators of collaborations and partnerships.
create lifelong impact in the lives of colleagues, students and others.
consistently seek professional advancement and relevance in pursuit of
teaching quality and excellence.
exhibit commitment to inspire the education community and
stakeholders for the improvement of education provision in the
Philippine.

Application At this point , after knowing the 7 domains of teaching considered as

standards of the professional practice of teachers, as well as the career
stages we go through over time, you may now check yourself in terms of
how far you have developed already at this time. Use the checklist below
to find out.

Self Assessment Checklist

Domains for Teaching Practice

Y = Yes, I believe I already have developed the competencies in this

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 domain
S = Somewhat, I believe I already have developed some competencies
in this domain
NY= Not Yet, I believe I have not yet developed any competency in
this domain

Y S NY Domain of Teaching Standards

Content Knowledge and Pedagogy
Learning Environment
Diversity of Learners
Curriculum and Planning
Assessment and Reporting
Community Linkages & Professional Engagement
Personal Growth and Professional Development

Reflection Question:

1. For domains in which you answered SOMEWHAT or NOT

YET, what will you do in order to develop the teaching
competencies under those domain?

2. yourself progress from a beginner teacher stage to a

distinguished teacher in 10-15 years?

Closure Congratulations learner! You already completed 4 lessons in Module 1.

You have also come to find out about the outcomes of your learning
journey in the college of teacher education, the main reason why you are
being trained as teacher through your enrolment in a BSED or BEED
program. Always remember that this course in facilitating learner-centred
teaching is intended to help you acquire the competencies listed as
strands in at least 5 domains of the PPST which are: content knowledge
& pedagogy, learning environment, diversity of learners, curriculum and
planning, and assessment and reporting.

Let us continue to deepen your understanding of your future learner

by turning to module 2.

MODULE ASSESSMENT (After the students have read and studied all the lessons
in the module, it is at the institutional level to decide whether to administer
assessment in any forms. This part allows flexibility within the institution.)

August 1, 2020
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MODULE SUMMARY
 ∙ Learner centered teaching has brought significant changes from the traditional
teacher-centered approach. These changes involve balance of power between
teacher and student, evaluation of purpose & process, role of teacher,
responsibility of learner and function of content.

∙ Four principles are also notable in a student centered teaching approach which
are: learning is personalized; learning is competency-based; learning happens
anytime, anywhere; and students take owner ship of their learning.

∙ The American Psychological Association also published the top 20 principles

of teaching and learning in Prek-12 education for teachers. The principles are
distilled from decades of research on how cognition, emotion and motivation
are enable students to really learn.

∙ Three pedagogical approaches that promote learner centeredness are

cooperative learning approach, differentiated instruction approach, and
personalized learning approach.

∙ Learning theories that inform the teaching practices of contemporary teachers

are drawn from behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, connectivism.

∙ The Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers clarifies the 7 domains of

teaching practice which emphasizes the competence of teachers to help student
with diverse abilities and background in a learner centered learning
environment.

August 1, 2020
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REFERENCES

Abramczyk, A. & Jurkowski, S. (2020): Cooperative learning as an evidence-based

teaching strategy: what teachers know, believe, and how they use it, Journal of
Education for Teaching. DOI: 10.1080/02607476.2020.1733402

Bondie, R.S., Dahnke, C., & Zusho, A. (2019). How does changing “one-size-fits-all”
to differentiated instruction affect teaching? . Review of Research in Education, 43,
pp. 336–362. DOI: 10.3102/0091732X18821130

Bouser & Hilgard (1981) “Epistemology Continuum”, 23-26

Dep. Ed Order No. 36 s. 2013 “Outcomes of Teacher Education”. 10m pages

memorandum

Department of Education (2015) “Grade 10 Learners Guide” Garden of Herbs. L3,

125-130
Driscoll (2000) “Learning Exist in the Mind” 78-83

Duffy & Jonassen (1991) “How Does Transfer Occur?” 7-11

Ernest (1994) “Ontological Reality”

Feldman, W (2009) “Cognitivism, Theories of Learning”. 35-42

Instructor Facilitation Assessment. Curriculum Guide: Teaching & Facilitating
Learning. Retrieved from [Link]/documents/prof-tech/Teaching
Facilitating-Learning-2%[Link]

Johnson, D.W. (2009). An educational psychology success story: social

interdependence theory and cooperative learning. Educational Researcher. 38 (5):
365–379. doi:10.3102/0013189x09339057.

August 1, 2020
53
Jonassen, D (1991) “Hoe Does Learning Occur” (1) 10-13

McCarthy, E.M., Liu, Y. & Schauer, K.L. (2020). Strengths based blended
personalized learning: An impact study using virtual comparison group, Journal of
Research on Technology in Education, 52:3, 353-370, DOI:
10.1080/15391523.2020.1716202

Oliver, C. (2000) “What is the Role of Teacher in Constructivism Classroom?” 1.

13- 17.

Olofson, M.W., Downes, J.M., Smith, C., LeGeros, L., & Bishop, P.A. (2018) An
Instrument to Measure Teacher Practices to Support Personalized Learning in the
Middle Grades, RMLE Online, 41:7, 1-21, DOI:
10.1080/19404476.2018.1493858

RODEL Teacher Council, (2014). Blueprint for Personalized Learning Approach.

[Link]
[Link]

Senate Committee on Education. Act 77. An act relating to encouraging flexible

pathways to secondary school completion., Pub. L. No. S130 (2013). Retrieved
from [Link] docs/2014/Acts/[Link]

Shuel (1986) “Factors Influence Learning” 35-42.

Siemens & Downs (2004) “The Framework of Behaviorism” 2 10-15. Tam

(2000) “What are the features of a Constructivist Classroom?. 2 (23) 25-30

Tomlinson,C., Brighton, c., Hertberg, H., Callahan, C., Moon, T., Brimijoin, L.,
Conover, A. & Reynolds, T. (2003). Differentiating Instruction in Response to
Student Readiness, Interest, and Learning Profile in Academically Diverse
Classrooms: A Review of Literature. Journal for the Education of the Gifted. Vol.
27, No. 2/3, 2003, pp. 119–145. [Link]

Winne (1985) “The Learning Prtocess”. 5-8

Zmuda, A, Curtis, G. & Ullman, D. (2015). Learning personalized: The evolution of

the contemporary classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
 August 1, 2020
54

MODULE 2
Cognition of Learners
Template 3
Module No. & Title Module 2: COGNITION OF LEARNERS

Module Overview Dear students, welcome to module 2. The focus of this

module, is to let you understand the different functions of
left and the right- brain hemispheres in the cognitive
processes. Moreover, you will also explore the various
theories of intelligence as well as evaluate the role of
metacognition in learning process.

Module In this module, you are challenged to:

Objectives/Outcomes 1. Differentiate cognitive functions that allow for
memory formation, storage, and forgetting.
2. Explain the role of the theories of intelligence in
classroom teaching and learning;
3. Describe how cognitive theories help teachers design
the learning environment that accommodates
differences;

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4. Evaluate the role of metacognition in learning;

Lessons in the module Lesson 2.1 Multi-Store Memory Model

Lesson 2.2 Dual Coding Theory
Lesson 2.3 Forgetting Curve Model
Lesson 2.4 Spaced Retrieval
Lesson 2.5 Laterization of Brain Functions
Lesson 2.6 Theories of Intelligence
Lesson 2.7 Metacognition

LESSON 2.1
Module 2 COGNITION OF LEARNERS
No. and
Title

Lesson 2.1 Multi-Store Memory

No. and
Title

Learning Explain how the types of memory operate in the Multi-Store

Outcomes Memory Model.
Time Frame 1 hour

Introduction Welcome to Module 2 Lesson 1! At this point, you will understand how
learning operates via cognition. Specifically, you will be familiarized
with different cognition theories that explains how learning takes inside
the mind of the learner. Knowledge gained from this will surely afford
you appropriate approaches and strategies to employ in different learning
contexts.

Activity ‘Memory Master’

In the appendix A, you will find picture # 1.

This is a test of honesty and of your sharp
memory. Now, stare at the picture for sixty
seconds. When the time is up, go back to
this page write as many things as you can
remember found on that picture without
looking back at it. Begin.

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Within one minute, write your answers here.

Analysis Now let us answer the following I feel enlighten

∙
questions: How did you feel of how weak my
about the activity? strategy in
memorize is still.
And I feel as I
want to improve.

What could have caused you to remember so I encoded each

∙
scribble that was
in the picture
placing
information
incorporating
description to
each of it
mentally.

What could have caused you to forget

I think
somebecause
of
∙
the things in it?
the were too
many similar
 things in the
photo and the
strategy of
encoding was
not so effective.
There could
more effective
real strategies to
practice so that
information
could all be
encoded and
organized and
not forgotten for
longer duration.
Since the task
also is not a real
challenge the is
no proper
motivation.

Did you know that there ardifferent

Yes, I have
storesread
∙
operating in our I
the topic before
memory?
came back to
this activity. The
Sensory
Memory, STM
and LTM.

Abstraction This time we shall learn about Multi-Store Memory.

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed the multi-store memory model

also known as modal model which is basically a structural model.
Together they proposed the notion that memory consists of three stores:
∙ a sensory register

∙ short-term memory (STM)

∙ long-term memory (LTM).

To this, they held that information goes through the process in a linear
way which has been described as the information processing model so
much like how a computer works with an input, process and output.

As such, information is said to be detected by the sense organs which

then proceeds to the sensory memory. This, if attended to can enter the
short term memory. When the information from the short-term memory
is rehearsed (repeated), it gets transferred to the long-term memory.
However, without maintenance rehearsal (repetition) information may be
forgotten and gets lost from short-term memory by the process of
displacement or decay.

The Memory Stores

Each store is a unitary structure and has its own characteristics in terms
of encoding, capacity and duration.

Encoding is the way information is changed so that it can be stored in the

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57
memory. There are three main ways in which information can be
encoded (changed):
1. visual (picture),
2. acoustic (sound),
3. semantic (meaning).

Capacity concerns how much information can be stored.

Duration refers to the period of time information can last in the memory
stores.

Store Duration Capacity Encoding

Sensory
¼ to ½ second all sensory
sense specific (e.g.
Memory
experience (v.
different stores for each
larger capacity)
sense)
Short Term
0-18 seconds 7 +/- 2 items mainly auditory
Memory
Long Term
Unlimited Unlimited Mainly Semantic (but can
Memory
be visual and auditory)

Mcleod (2017) pointed out the study conducted by Glanzer and Cunitz
(1966) which sshowed that when learners were presented a list of words
only the first few and last few of those have the tendency to be
remembered while the words in the middle list are likely to be forgotten.

The result supports that a separate LTM and STM exists because of the
observed primacy and recency effect where words presented early on in
the list have been put into the long-term memory (primacy effect) due to
the span of time to rehearse the word while those words at the end part
proceeded to the short term memory (recency effect).
 Moreover, there have been different types of long term memory
identified such as episodic (memories of events), procedural (knowledge
of how to do things) and semantic (general knowledge).

Application Direction: Explain the Multi-Store Memory Model by filling in the

description of each type in the diagram below. Then give a one-
paragraph narrative as to how it works according to Atkinson and
Shiffrin (1968).

The Sensory Memory is acquire by the sense organs that is only stored for
a very brief approximately for 1 second then decays unless information of
sensation is store to memory then enhanced to STM. With huge capacity as
our sense organs sense almost everytime.
The Short Term Memory is also called the working memory which
memories lasts for approximately 18 seconds mainly by auditory memory
with limited capacity as old items are replaced with new items in the STM
if it become full, some decay and some enhanced to LTM when attended or
giving attention.
The Long Term Memory is where memories or information of it are
rehearsed that is why it last until the rest of our lives, with unlimted
capacity and mainly semantic memory but also visual and auditory
memory. LTM can be copied to STM and manipulated that is why ot’s just
almost permanent store.

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Sensory Memory decays more fast than the rest but when
information of the sensation is attended it can be enhanced into
STM. STM is a working memory. It is in between the two
memory which also tells it can decay or enhanced depending
on how much we rehearse the memory or attended to it. STM
has a buffer system where old items stays and also replaced
with new accompanying items. STM can enhance into LTM
considering the memory is often rehearsed or used. LTM lives
for a lifetime, the information of its store is not permanent
because it can be manipulated and copied to STM with new
items.

Closure Congratulations! You have finished Module 2 Lesson 1.1. You are
now ready to learn more theories on Cognition.

Lesson 2.2
Module 2 COGNITION OF LEARNERS
No. and
Title

Lesson 2.2 Dual Coding Theory

No. and
Title
Learning Differentiate the codes/channels in Dual Code Theory as a process
Outcomes of storing and retrieving information.

Time Frame 1 hour

Introduction Welcome to Module 2 Lesson 2! Here, you are still going to learn about a
theory on Cognition called the Dual Code Theory. Similar to the previous
lesson, this one will introduce us to another theory on Cognition. Let us
see how the Dual Code Theory explains how our minds absorb
information.

Activity ‘Who is Who?’

Look closely at the two activities.

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Analysis Let us answer the following questions:

∙ What difference can be noticed between Activity A and

B?

The information in Activity A and Activity are the same

but somehow with the following questions it seems like A
needs more time to be encoded and memorized to be able to
give right answer rather than in Activity B where the
information is definitely more organized and clear that
seems ready to be memorized.
∙ Which is easier to understand or remember? Why?

For me Activity B is way easier to remember since the

information here is already arranged in ranks and ready to
be encoded. The Activity A can be encoded but the
information which seems random requires to be organized
mentally so it will take time to understand Activity A than
to process Activity B though both of them have the same
information.
∙ If you were to choose, which activity would you prefer?
Why?
I would choose B because in a context where there is time limit
to answer it would be an advantage to be to have B since it
takes no time to organize the information given there is still a
need to organize A. Answering Activity B would take less time
and the cognitive would have less load.
∙ What do you think does it say about cognition?
Cognition is truly an amazing process since it happens so fast
that sometimes we don’t realize there in so much stages in the
process to be able to give an answer to a simple question alone.
Especially because in cognition it accomodate so much
information, it is a very significant.
Abstraction It is time we get to know Dual Coding Theory!

In 1971, a Canadian researcher Allan Paivio proposed ‘that the

human mind operates with two distinct classes of mental
representation (or “codes”), verbal representations and mental
images, and that human memory thus comprises two functionally
independent (although interacting) systems or stores, verbal
memory and image memory.’ (Thomas, 2014).

Source: [Link]

The two codes or channels in our memory deal with visual and verbal
stimuli and though they store those stimuli separately, they are linked
to each other and hence makes retrieval easier. Both, words or
images stimulate the retrieval of the other.

‘While being independent of each other, they are also able to create
what Paivio called “associative connections” between them. So, they
are both

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60
 apart from one another but can cooperate in forming linked pairs of
words and images. By forming such a link, the encoding process is
enriched. It leaves a double memory trace and, in the words of
Professor Paul Kirschner, results in “double-barrelled learning”
because of the resultant double opportunity of being retrieved by either
verbal or visual means.’ (Caviglioli, 2019)

No wonder teachers who employ a Dual Coding mindset in

preparing instructional materials have learning improved because
the students’ working memory is increased and cognitive load is
reduced.

Further, Paivio as cited by Caviglio (2019) defined visual information as

being synchronous or simultaneous in structure and that these
synonymous terms explains that diagrams can be viewed at one time
bearing most, if not all elements presented.

Meanwhile, verbal information is sequential by nature wherein each word

is addressed one at a time. There is a need to relate each word to other
words to make sense of it. There is a distance that require cognitive
effort so as to come up with the necessary inferences and finally make
sense of the whole text.

It is, therefore, worth to note that “Visuals ignored, don’t teach”. (Clark
and Lyons, 2004 cited by Caviglioli, 2019) Diagrams should be
presented to give information requiring less effort to understand it and
for students to think about or else not much learning can take place.
They should be thought of as platforms that enable learners to better
analyse texts.

Application Differentiate how the codes or channels in Dual Coding Theory operates
in our memory as a process of storing and retrieving information.

Closure Congratulations! You have finished Module 2 Lesson 1.2. The two
lessons learned on Cognition have surely helped in your preparation for
lesson presentations in the near future.

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Lesson 2.3
Module 2 COGNITION OF LEARNERS
No. and
Title

Lesson No. 2.3. Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve Model

and Title

Learning Explain the process of retaining or forgetting information received

Outcomes through the Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve Model.

Time Frame 1 hour

Introduction Welcome to Module 2 Lesson 3! You are now set to learn another theory
on Cognition. This time, you will be introduced to how forgetting occurs
in learners and what can be done to help them retain the information
learned.

Activity ‘Lest You Forget!’

Describe the past two lessons on cognition. Give brief descriptions
for each based on what you can remember.
Multi Store Memory
Dual Coding Theory explains the two distinct function of the human
mind to remember visual or image and verbal information making a
memory of it however visual memory can be retained
synchroneously while verbal memory can only be retained one at a
time.
Theory

Analysis Let us talk about the activity above.

∙ In which theory were you able to remember much information?
Why? Both, because first of all because the topi multi store
memory is my topic for the demo-teaching and second only a
good amount subtopics were there on both main topic which
were lighter to mentally encode and were very descriptive and
easy to understand since there we’re visualization and clear
meanings in connection with the purpose of the theories.

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 ∙ How do you rate yourself in the activity above?
I might be confident with how much I understood but I still think my
knowledge still lacks or that I still need to seek to more credible and
expounded perception of the same topics. I would probably rate
myself a seven out of ten. Since I can still recall them with brief
descriptions.
∙ What could have affected why you to remember the information
you learned?

∙ Did you know that there are certain periods that allow you to
retain the lessons learned and there are periods that you start
forgetting most of them?

Abstraction Today we shall learn about the Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve Model

As sure as the sunrise, human beings tend to forget things learned in

the past. This lesson will help us understand how fast we forget.
The ‘forgetting curve’ which refers to the loss of learned information
has been a product of a series of experiments conducted on memory
by German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909).

‘The theory is that humans start losing the memory of learned

knowledge over time, in a matter of days or weeks, unless the learned
knowledge is consciously reviewed time and again. A related concept
to the forgetting curve is strength of memory, which states that the time
period up to which a person can recall any memory is based on the
strength of the particular memory.’ (Shrestha, 2017)

In an article by Wadsworth (2019), he mentioned in particular its

implications to college students who after a day or two of attending
classes, will have forgotten 75% of what was learned and that
forgetting occurs within the first hour. Interestingly, although this is
said to be a natural process, it is possible to disrupt the process.

Looking at the graph, it can be noticed that our memory starts to fade
as days go by.
Again, simple processes can be employed to delay forgetting and can
help us retain the information needed at a later date.
 August 1, 2020
63

As mentioned earlier, forgetting can be slowed down or disrupted. It

can be observed in the second graph that forgetting can be overcomed
by spaced learning. What does spaced learning tell us?

‘While an initial review of material will help you remember in the short
term, reviewing material multiple times and at different intervals will
help you retain it for much longer.’ The graph ‘shows how review
affects memory. You can see that every time you review material you
both retain much more information, and your forgetting curve steadies
out at a much higher level. Each time you review material you take
much more away. Research indicates that the minimum amount of
review is three.’ (Whitman, yyyy)

The dramatic increase proves how much review can do to students in

retaining learned information over a period of time. ‘Unfortunately, it
also shows that without additional intervention one day after material is
learned content is lost, and one week after, recall is almost as if the
review never happened at all.’ (Whitman, yyyy)

Application Fill in the PMI chart with what you learned about the Ebbinghaus
Forgetting Curve Model. Write under Plus column all the positive things
you can say; write all the negative things on the ‘Minus’ column and
write all areas you think can still be explored in the ‘Interesting’
column.

Plus Minus Interesting

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Closure Congratulations! You have finished Module 2 Lesson 1.3. You are
now ready to learn further on theories of Cognition.

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 Lesson 2.4
Module 2 COGNITION OF LEARNERS
No. and
Title

Lesson 2.4. Spaced Retrieval

No. and
Title

Learning Explain how the process of spaced retrieval can help improve
Outcomes one’s memory.

Time Frame 1 hour

Introduction Welcome to Module 2 Lesson 4! You are now set to learn another
theory on Cognition. At this point you will get to know how soon our
memory fails us. However, we shall also get to know how this can be
addressed through spaced retrieval.

Activity ‘Time for Trivia’

Answer the following trivia questions in 5 minutes.

Question Answer
1. Which country produces the most
coffee in the world?
2. What is the common name for
dried plums?
3. Which country invented tea?
4. What name does deer meat go by?
5. Which kind of alcohol is Russia
notoriously known for?

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6. What other name does “corn”
go by?

7. What is the national dish of Spain?

8. Which European nation was said

to invent hot dogs?

9. What’s the primary ingredient

in hummus?

[Link] country is responsible

for giving us pizza and pasta?
Analysis Let us talk about the activity.

1. Did you enjoy the trivia game? Why?

2. What helped you answer the trivia questions easily?

3. How could you have learned about those things?

4. Do you think you could have answered all of those if you have time
to review?

Abstraction Spaced Retrieval: What is there to know?

As a memory technique, Spaced Retrieval (SR) is evidence-based

and makes use of ‘procedural memory to help people recall
information over progressively longer intervals of time.’ (Desai,
2020)

Now let us discuss a little about memory. According to Desai (2020)

‘A memory is simply a pattern of information in the brain that is

stored and retrieved.’ She added that oftentimes long-term memory is
described as either declarative or non-declarative. Declarative
memory consists of those which can be consciously recalled like facts
(semantic memory) as well as personal events (episodic memory)
while Non-declarative memory (also called procedural memory)
refers to implicit memory responsible for helping us carry out
common tasks even without the conscious thinking of it. (e.g. riding a
bike, washing dishes, etc.)

Moreover, Rawson et. al, (2013) stressed three principles that

promote effective long term learning which include meaningful
connections, retrieval practice and spaced practice.

As such teachers need to establish meaningful connections by

explaining new concepts in relation to concepts previously learned.
Also, they need to keep the information accessible for retrieval
practice and promote spaced practice that is to distribute practice
repetitions over time.

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 In 2013 Rawson et. al, studied how much Spaced Retrieval practice
have helped students utilize memorization for an upcoming
examination.

The participants were observed using the Spaced Retrieval Practice

and Restudy strategies. For SR Practice learning a concept
progressed in three steps (retrieval, monitoring and feedback).
While, in Restudy strategy a concept is presented at least five times
more after initial presentation.

Its findings revealed that during the exams, concepts learned with the
use of Spaced Retrieval were better remembered as compared to the
Restudy strategy and other strategies. Interestingly, SR practice ‘did
not just yield better results on the exam but prevented the post-exam
rapid forgetting.’ In short, concepts learned remain in the minds of the
students long after the exam was taken.

The above-mentioned study is proof how SR can be employed in

the classroom to ensure better learning for students.

Application Explain how you as a teacher can enhance the memory of students
through the use of Spaced Retrieval.

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 By __________________________ By ______________________
When I become a
teacher I will apply
the principles of
Spaced Retrieval...

By__________________________ By ______________________

Closure Congratulations! You have finished Module 2 Lesson 1.4. You are
now ready to learn further on theories of Cognition.

Lesson 2.5
Module No. 2 COGNITION OF LEARNERS
2 and Title

Lesson No. 2.5 Lateralization of Brain Function

1 and Title

Learning At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

Outcomes 1. differentiate cognitive functions between left and right hemispheres
2. categorize some of your inclinations that are considered left-brained
and right-brained.

Time Frame 2 hours

Introduction Good day students, welcome to the first lesson of module two. Today you
will encounter the concept of brain lateralization. This lesson will explain
how the two hemispheres of the brain affects how students learn.

Activity Activity: Brain Dominance Test

Instruction: Read the following description

and put a check in the blank before the
number if the description fits with your
personality.

_______1. When I’m confused. I usually

follow my gut instinct.
_______2. I like to draw.
_______3. When I am trying to remember
a name I forgot, I would recite the alphabet
until I remember it.

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 _______4. I always lose track of time.
_______5. To solve problem, I think of similar problems I have
solved in the past.
_______6. I believe there is an either right and wrong to do
everything.
_______7. I am able to thoroughly explain my opinions in
words. _______8. I keep a “to do list”.
_______9. I frequently change my plans and find that sticking to a schedule
is boring.
_______10. I believe there are two ways to look at almost everything.

After answering check your result. If you checked numbers 1, 4, 5, 7, 8 then

put L for left hemisphere. If you checked numbers 2, 3, 6, 9, 10 then right R
for right hemisphere.

Count the numbers of L’s and R’s. Whichever is the highest represents your
dominance.

Analysis Guide Questions:

1. Based on the activity, what are your perceptions about the

hemispheres of the brain? Are you contented with your result?

2. Do the hemispheres of the brain affects how a student learn?

3. Is it important for the teacher to identify the left or right brain

dominance of the child for proper lesson delivery?

Abstraction Brain Lateralization

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 Figure 1: The Left and Right Brain Functions

Right hemisphere functions include the following; judging the position of

objects in space, understanding of body position, comprehending and
remembering things you do and see, putting pieces of information together to
make an entire picture, and motor control of the left side of the body.

Left hemisphere functions include the following: Use of language (listening,

reading, speaking and writing), memory for spoken and written language,
analysis of information in detail, and motor control of the right side of the
body. These skills develop over time in children and deficits in related areas
of functioning suggest problems with this process.

Lateralization is the differing functions of the left and right hemispheres of

the brain. Research over the years has shown that damage to one hemisphere
or the other can produce different problems and knowing this can help
predict behavior.

Table 1
Summary of Differences in Cognitive Functions
between the Left and Right Hemispheres

Left-brain Hemisphere Right-brain Hemisphere Characteristics

✔ Follows a sequential,

✔ Follows random,
linear and analytical
intuitive and spontaneous
process
process
✔ Uses verbal language

✔ Uses non-verbal
often
language often
✔ With internal focus,

✔ With external focus

reasoning, judgment
✔ Experiential and holistic

✔ Uses symbolic

✔ Deals with similarities

processing
✔ Integrates multiple inputs

✔ Does one thing at a

✔ Fiction-based
time
✔ Reality-based
 Functions ▪ Controls the muscles on

▪ Controls the muscles on

the right side of the
left side of the body
body
▪ Regulates negative

▪ Regulates positive
emotions
emotions
▪ Responds to simple

▪ Controls muscles used

commands
in speech
▪ Memorizes music and

▪ Controls the sequence

shapes
of movements
▪ Interprets visual images

▪ Memorizes words and

▪ Understands
numbers
relationships in space
▪ Regulates speaking and

▪ Recognizes faces
writing
▪ Understands spoken
and written forms
Source: Lucas 2007

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Whole- Brained People are those individuals that enjoy best of both worlds.
They have the skill to shift task to the hemisphere of the brain that suits with
the situation. These people are both logical and creative thinkers. They enjoy
logical task like sequencing, solving puzzles and quizzes. They also love arts,
crafts and music. The whole brained learners can see both the forest and tree.
But they may lack the organization strength of the left-brained and the
creative brilliance of a right-brained learners.
Application Categorize some of your inclinations listed below that are considered
left brained and right-brained.

careful planning classical music good time

popular music go with first idea being thoughtful popular
music consider alternative being active
board games athletics being on time Write your response

in the table.

Left Dominance Right Dominance

Closure Congratulations! You have finished Lesson 1 of Module 2. You are now
ready to learn more theories of Cognition.

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Lesson 2.6
Module No. 2 COGNITION OF LEARNERS
2 and Title

Lesson No. 2.6 Theories of Intelligence

1 and Title

Learning At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

Outcomes 1. develop a clear definition of intelligence,
2. describe the nature of intelligence;
3. explain how understanding intelligence may affect the delivery
of class instructions and assessments.

Time Frame 2 hours

Introductio Good day students, after the discussion on the first lesson of this
n module I welcome you all to the second lesson. Today you will
encounter the different theories of intelligence. This lesson presents the
different thinkers and their theories that explain the concept of
intelligence .

Activity Activity: The Connell Multiple Intelligence

Questionnaire Instructions: Put a check to each sentence
that describes you Area 1
_____ I like to listen to songs on the radio, CD etc.
_____ I like to watch music video on TV.
_____ I can easily remember tunes, raps, or melodies.
_____ I like to sing.
Area 2
_____ I like to draw, paint, and make things in clay.
_____ It is fun to play video games.
_____ I create pictures in my mind to help me in
_____ I have a good vocabulary and I like to learn new
words.
_____ It is fun to play word games.
_____ I like to write.
Area 4
_____ I like animals.
_____ I like being outside.

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_____ I like to observe nature’s changes, such as
thunderstorm, rain and sunshine.
_____ I like to hike, walk, or run outdoors.
Area 5
_____ It is fun to solve mysteries.
_____ I can do math problems in my head.
_____ I like to do science experiment.
_____ I find arithmetic and math problem interesting.

Area 6
_____ I like to dance.
_____ I like to play sports.
_____ I like to move when I am thinking.
_____ I can sometimes “feel” the right answer.
Area 7
______I like to be with my friends.
______I can usually tell how other people feel.
______It is fun for me to organize events.
______I like to talk in class discussion.
Area 8
______I like doing things myself.
______I would rather work by myself than with others.
______I like to play computer games.
______I usually know what my feelings are.

Scoring- Count all the number of responses for each area. The areas
that you check shows your inclination to that intelligence.
______ Area 1 (Music Smart) ______ Area 5 (Math Smart)
______ Area 2 (Picture Smart) ______Area 6 (Body Smart)
______ Area 3 (Word Smart) ______Area 7 (People Smart)
______ Area 4 (Nature Smart) ______Area 8 (Self Smart)
Analysis Guide Questions:

1. In your opinion, what is intelligence?

2. Is intelligence acquired or inborn?

3. Do you think that it is important for

teachers to adjust his/her delivery of instruction just to adapt
to different intelligence of learners?

Abstraction Intelligence has many definitions and people have different

perceptions of what it really is. In the field of education, identifying
intelligence and assessing its value is one of the most important aspect
for it will help you in the delivery of instruction and conduct of
assessment. But the biggest

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problem comes with identifying the real definition of intelligence.
Different theories are created to explain what intelligence is and these
theories will help future teachers to understand their learners better.

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner in his book Frames of Mind (1983) explained that

intelligence does not come in one type but in 9 different types. He
explained that intelligence comes in different forms and understanding
these different types of intelligence can help people especially teachers
in understanding the learners better.

The 9 types of Intelligence

1. Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart)

- This intelligence focuses its ability to think in three
dimensions. Some of its strength includes spatial
reasoning, artistic skill, active imagination and image
manipulation. People with spatial intelligence enjoys
jigsaw, puzzles, mazes and drawing.

2. Naturalist Intelligence (Nature Smart)

- The strength of this intelligence is to organize and
discriminate living things as well as being sensitive to the
features of the natural world.
-
3. Musical Intelligence (Music Smart)
- People under this intelligence has the ability to recognize
rhythm, timbre, pitch, and tone. This intelligence helps
learners in creating and reflecting music. Instrumentalist,
composers and singers possesses this intelligence.

4. Intra-personal Intelligence (Self Smart)

- Recognizing personal strengths, thoughts and feelings and
using it to plan and direct your life is the major
characteristic of people possessing this intelligence. This
intelligence does not only focus on self but it also has the
ability to understand the nature of human condition.

5. Bodily- Kinesthetic Intelligence (Body Smart)

- This intelligence is portrayed through manipulation of objects
and use of different physical strength. Strong hand-eye
coordination, timing, and skill perfection through strong
mind- body coordination are the main strengths of this
intelligence.

6. Linguistic Intelligence (Word Smart)

- The strength of a word smart is the ability to use words and
language in expressing ideas. This intelligence allows
people to understand the order of words, its meaning and
apply meta linguistic skill in using language.

7. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence (Math Smart)

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 - Math Smart has the ability to quantify, calculate, consider
proposition and hypotheses, and carry out complete
mathematical operations. This intelligence helps the learner
to perceive relationships and connections and to use
abstract, symbolic thought; sequential reasoning skills,
inductive and deductive thinking.

8. Existential Intelligence (Spirit Smart)

- This intelligence is sensitive and has the ability to answer/ask
questions about human existence like the true meaning of
life, is there life after death and why to de exists.

9. Interpersonal Intelligence (People Smart)

- The people under this intelligence has the ability to
understand and communicate with others in a very
effective way. The skills that involves in people smart
includes sensitivity to moods and temperaments of others,
strong verbal and non-verbal communication skills and the
ability to identify the differences of others.

Spearman’s Two – Factor Theory of Intelligence

English Psychologist Charles Spearman developed the two-factor

theory in 1904. In this theory he proposed that intellectual abilities were
comprised to two factor: the first ability is called the as the “G” factor
which is the general ability or the common ability; the second is called
as the “S” factor which is a group of specific abilities.

Figure 2
The Two-factor Theory of Intelligence

The “G” factor involves the ability of an individual to do difficult

mental task such as problem solving, analyzing and critical thinking.
The greater the “G” in an individual the greater its chance to live a
successful life.

The “S” factor is acquired from the environment. This varies from an
individual to and individual and from activity to activity in the same

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individual. Therefore, the S-factor can be modified by learning and
habitual training.

Thurstone’s Theory: Primary Mental/ Group Factor Theory

Louis Thurstone said that

, as what Thorndike believes. He also believes that there are no general

factors that controls all mental tasks. Thurstone proposed the concept
that intelligence is a cluster of abilities. Then all the mental operations
constitute a group. A second group of mental operations has its own
unifying primary factor; a third group has a third primary factor an so
on.

Thurstone’s theory states that there are many groups of mental

abilities, each of this group has its own primary factor, and this factor
give a sense of wholeness to the group. The theory also emphasize that
these primary factors is said to be relatively independent of the others.
Thurstone has given the following nine primary factors:

1. Numerical Factor (N)- This ability involves fast and accurate

mathematical calculations.
2. Verbal Comprehensive Factor- This ability involves accurate
understanding verbal materials, vocabulary and reading
comprehension.
3. Verbal Fluency Factor- The ability to produce words,
sentences and other verbal material.
4. Perceptual Speed Factor- This ability involves proofreading
and rapid recognition of numbers and letters.
5. Inductive Reasoning Factor- The ability to create
generalization- reasoning from specific to general thinking. \
6. Spatial Visualization Factor- The ability to manipulates
imaginary object in space.
7. Memory Factor- The ability to memorize quickly.
8. Deductive Reasoning- Ability to use general result correctly.
9. Problem Solving Ability Factor- This ability focuses on the
skill to solve problem independently.

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

American psychologist Robert Sternberg (1985) has created three

pronged or the triarchic theory of intelligence. The three are:

1. Analytic Intelligence- generally define as the academic ability. This

intelligence helps us to solve problems and acquire new
information. Problem solving involves encoding information,
combining and comparing evidences and finally generation of
solution.

2. Creative Intelligence- the ability to adapt within a situation and to

learn from experiences. This intelligence helps the learners to
relate current situation to the past experiences whether it is
similar or different. The result of such experience helps an
individual to

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 solve problems rapidly.

3. Practical Intelligence- also known as the street smart, help learners

to adapt to the demand of their environment. This intelligence
involves dealing with common personal o practical problems.
This intelligence also involves dealing with unusual problem in
our daily life.

Application a. Create a simple classroom activity that will address the different
theories of intelligence in a classroom situation. (Use a separate
sheet in answering).

Lesson/
Topic Theory Activity Name Description of Activity
Gardner

Sternberg

Thurstone

Spearman

Closure Congratulations! You have finished Lesson 2 of Module 2. I hope the

knowledge you got from the topic will help you in your future teaching
endeavor.

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Lesson 2.7
Module No. 2 COGNITION OF LEARNERS
2 and Title

Lesson No. Lesson 2.7 Metacognition

1 and Title

Learning At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

Outcomes 1. clearly define metacognition,
2. identify the different situation that requires metacognition;
3. explain how metacognition can help the learners in achieving a
better learning environment.

Time Frame 2 hours

Introduction Good day students, I welcome you all to the last lesson of this module.
Today you will learn metacognition and what it truly is. This lesson will
explain how metacognition works and how it will help in developing the
learners thinking prowess.

Activity Activity: Force Field Analysis

Instructions: Create a chart of your goals for the next five years. Write also
your specific steps that will help you in accomplishing these goals. From the
chart, add hindering forces and helping forces that affects your goals.

Analysis Guide Questions:

1. What were the questions in your mind when you were writing
the activity?

2. Did the activity help you in understanding and reflecting for

your future? If it did in what way?

3. How important is introspection in teaching and also in learning new

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concepts?
Abstraction Metacognition means “thinking about thinking” coined by John Flavell, the
founding father of the concept of metacognition. Flavell said that
metacognition is an individual’s knowledge about how he/she thinks. Flavell
(1979) explicitly said, “It is your ability to control your thinking processes
through various strategies, such as organizing, monitoring, and adapting.
Additionally, it is your ability to reflect upon tasks or process you undertake
and to select and utilize the appropriate strategies necessary in your
intercultural interactions.”

Elements of Metacognition

Specialists recognize metacognitive information and metacognitive

guideline (Flavell, 1979, 1987; Schraw and Dennison, 1994). Metacognitive
information alludes to what people think about themselves as psychological
processors, about various methodologies that can be utilized for learning and
critical thinking, for a specific learning task. Metacognitive guideline
alludes to alterations people make to their procedures to help control their
learning, for example, arranging, data the systems, appreciation checking,
de-irritating methodologies, and assessment of progress and objectives.
Flavell (1979) further partitions metacognitive information into three
classifications:

∙ Person variables: What one recognizes about his or her strengths and
weaknesses in learning and processing information.

∙ Task variables: What one knows or can figure out about the nature of a
task and the processing demands required to complete the task—for
example, knowledge that it will take more time to read, comprehend, and
remember a technical article than it will a similar-length passage from a
novel.

∙ Strategy variables: The to apply in a flexible way to successfully

accomplish a task; for example, knowing how to activate prior
knowledge before reading a technical article, using a glossary to
look up unfamiliar words, or recognizing that sometimes one has to
reread a paragraph several times before it makes sense.

Metacognitive Strategies

As an active learner, you are capable of monitoring your progress related to

your learning and the tasks at hand. There are metacognitive strategies that
can be learned which will serve as your mechanism for controlling your
thinking activities and to ensure you are meeting your goals.

As an example, metacognitive strategies for learning a new language can

include the following:monitoring whether you understand the language
lessons;

● monitoring whether you understand the language lessons;

● recognizing when you fail to comprehend information communicated
to you in the new language;
● identifying strategies that help you to improve your comprehension;
● adjusting your pace for learning the information (for example,
● studying for 2 hours, rather than 1 hour, every day);
● maintaining the attitude necessary to ensure you complete the lessons
in a timely manner;
● creating a check-in system at the end of each week to make certain
you
● understand what you have learned.
Metacognition has been emphasized in the field of education for it makes
learning active. It takes away the concept of just absorbing information form
the surrounding without processing it. The main goal of metacognition it to
help learners to be a better thinker. In a way, it presents a task that will
develop the thinking capabilities of the child that in the near future they can
use it in their future works or jobs.

Application Task: Letter for Future Students

Instruction: Write a letter to student who will take this subject next school
year. The content of the letter may include: What should they expect? What
will they find most challenging? What advice can you give to them? Closure
Good job. You are done with all the lesson in this module. I am expecting
that you will use all the knowledge you learn from this module to the next
lesson .

MODULE ASSESSMENT

(After the students have read and studied all the lessons in the module, it is
at the

institutional level to decide whether to administer assessment in any forms.

This part

allows flexibility within the institution.)

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81

MODULE 2 SUMMARY

Multistore Memory Model proposes that human memory system is

composed

of a sensory register, short term memory, and long term memory.

Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve Model describes the forgetting as a normal

brain

activity which deletes or decays information within 31 days if there are no

attempts to mentally retrieve information stored in the long term memory.

Dual Code Theory describes the two codes or channels in a learner’s

memory

that deal with visual and verbal stimuli and though they store those stimuli

separately, they are linked to each other and hence makes retrieval of stored

memory easier.
Studies on Spaced Retrieval of stored remory revealed that during exams,

concepts learned with the use of spaced Retrieval were better remembered as

compared to the Restudy strategy and other strategies.

Lateralization pertains to specific functions which are located on one side of

the brain. Right hemisphere functions include the following; judging the

position of objects in space, understanding of body position, comprehending

and remembering things. Left hemisphere functions includes use of language

memory for spoken and written language, analysis of information in detail,

and motor control of the right side of the body.

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82

Howard Gardner has formulated 9 multiple intelligences namely; spatial,

musical, bodily kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist,

existentialist, linguistic, logical-mathematical.

Spearman’s two-factor of intelligence are the “G” factor, which means

general

intelligence and the “S” factor, which means specific intelligence.

Thurstone’s theory believes primary factors of intelligence are: numerical,

verbal comprehensive, verbal fluency, perceptual speed, inductive reasoning,

spatial visualization, memory, deductive reasoning and problem solving

ability.

Sternberg’s triarchic intelligence explain intellect into three different groups

namely; analytic, creative and practical.

Metacognitive theory describes thinking as an active regulation and

monitoring of ones’ cognitive processes.

REFERENCES

Agarwal, Pooja K., Roediger, Henry L. III, Mcdaniel, Mark A., McDermott,
Kathleen
B., (2013). How to Use Retrieval Practice to Improve Learning, Washington

University in St. Louis. [Link]

Aquino, A., (2009). Facilitating Human Learning. REX Book Store.

Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) Multi store model explains memory and
forgetting.

[Link]

Bertelson, P. (1982). Lateral differences in normal man and lateralization of

brain

function. International Journal of Psychology, 17(1-4), 173-210.

Corpuz, B., Lucas, MR., Borabo, H., and Lucido, P. (2015). Child and
Adolescent

Development: Looking at Learners at Different Life Stages. Lorimar

Publishing Inc.

Damon, W., & Lerner, R., (2008). Child and Adolescent Development: An
Advanced

Course. John Wiley & Sons.

Food & Drink Trivia Questions Retrieved from

[Link]

Gardner, H. E. (2000). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the

21st

century. Hachette UK.

August 1, 2020

83

Gardner, H. (2011). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences.

Hachette

UK.

Hacker, Douglas J., John Dunlosky and Arthur C. Graesser, (2009) (Eds.).
Handbook

of Metacognition in Education,.

Lefrancois, G. R. (2001). Of children: An introduction to child and

adolescent

development. Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Lucas, M .R., Corpuz, B., (2011). Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive
Process.

Lorimar Publishing Inc.

McLeod, S. A. (2017, Febuary 05). Multi store model of memory. Simply

Psychology.

[Link]

Riley, J. (no year). Multi-Store model of memory.

[Link]

Wittman, John (no year) The Forgetting Curve, CSU Stanislaus Retrieved
from

Praveen Shrestha, (2017). "Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve," in Psychestudy.

[Link]
curve

Sternberg, R., (1984). Beyond IQ. A Triarchic Theory of Human

Intelligence.

Cambridge University Press.

Successive Relearning aka Spaced Retrieval Practice – A paper summery

(Demo).

[Link]
relearning-aka-

spaced-retrieval-practice-a-paper-summery/

Weiner, I. B. (2003). Handbook of psychology, history of psychology (Vol.

1). John

Wiley & Sons.

What Is The Forgetting Curve (And How Do You Combat It)? Retrieved
from

[Link]

William Wadsworth, ( 15 Mar 2019 ) Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve

Explained: The

Importance of Spaced Learning For Memory

 MODULE 3

Motivation of Learners

Template 3

Module No. & Title 3 MOTIVATION OF LEARNERS

Module Overview

With this module, you will be given the opportunity to learn independently.
This will guide you to have better understanding on the concept of this
course. Specifically, this course explores the fundamental principles,
processes, and practices anchored on learner-centeredness and other
education psychologies as these apply to facilitate various teaching and
learning delivery modes to enhance 21st century learning.

Module

Objectives/Outcomes

Discuss the concepts of the theories of motivation based on learners’ needs,

strengths , interests and experiences through developmentally appropriate
[Link] how motivation of students drive their desire to learn

Lessons in the module

Lesson 3.1 Motivation: Definition and Types

Lesson 3.2 Academic Motivation

Lesson 3.3 ARCS Model of Motivation

Lesson 3.1 Module No. and Title

3 MOTIVATION OF LEARNERS

Lesson No. and Title

3.1 Motivation: Definition and Types

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to: distinguish between extrinsic
and intrinsic motivation. justify the role of extrinsic motivation in view of
the development of intrinsic motivation.

Time Frame 2 hours

Introduction Hi! How’s the new way of learning my dear student? I hope
you are enjoying it. You already assessed yourself with lots of theories in the
previous modules. Today, you will learn new theory that will help you
improve your skills as a future educator. Enjoy and keep on learning.
 Remember that studying is a hard task. However, it ceases to be a task if you
have the right kind and the right amount of motivation. Good luck!

Activity

Let us know how motivated you are. We have here a test. Score yourself by
checking the appropriate column.

Legend: 1– Never, 2– Seldom, 3– Sometimes, 4– Often, and 5- Always

Behavior 1 2 3 4 5

1. I study even when there is no quiz/test.

2. I enjoy working on homework.

3. I look forward to school days.

4. I read for learning, not only for grades.

5. In every school task I do, I always do my best.

6. I give/do more than what is required.

7. I listen intently to my teacher’s lecture and

instructions.

8. I participate actively in class.

9. I like homework.

10. When something is not clear, I ask questions to

clarify.

11. I do not allow myself to be discouraged by my

classmates’ unfavorable remarks.

12. My teacher’s unfavorable remarks do not turn

me off, rather they challenge me to do my best.

13. I believe that success can be reached by anyone

who works hard.

14. I always feel excited about learning.

15. I submit course requirements not only for the

sake of compliance.

16. I study not only for grades but more for

learning.
 17. I believe that nothing is difficult if we spend

hours learning it.

18. I believe that nothing is difficult if we spend

hours learning it.

19. I believe I can cope with my teacher’s

expectations.

20. I am always eager to learn new things.

21. I am very much interested to improve myself.

22. I read outside my assignments and lessons

because it helps me improve myself.

23. I love to be in the company of people who

inspire me to keep on growing.

24. I avoid people who have no desire to improve

themselves.

25. I see the relevance of my lessons to the

realization of my dream in life.

26. I am willing to give up the satisfaction of an

immediate goal for the sake of a more important

remote goal. e.g. give up watching tv in order to

study

Total per column

Grand TOTAL

Analysis

Interpret you scores:

One hundred thirty (130) is the perfect

score. If you got 65, that means you are

midway but not highly or very

motivated. The closer you are to 130, the

better motivated you are.

Try to answer these following questions:

Do you agree with your score?

In what items did you score comparatively lower?

What message do you get from those items where you scored

low?

When can you say that a student is highly motivated to learn?

What are indicators of a student’s level of motivation?

When a person is intrinsically motivated, his motivation comes

from within him/her or from the activity or task itself. When a

person is extrinsically motivated s/he is motivated by something

or someone outside herself/himself.

Now try to identify examples of extrinsic motivation and intrinsic

motivation based on the items of the questionnaire checklist and

answer the questions below.

1. Which type of motivation is more beneficial? Why?should we do

2. Should we do away with extrinsic motivation? Or is itnecessary?

Justify.

Abstraction

Motivation is “a process whereby a goal-

directed activity is instigated and sustained.”

(Schunk, Pintrinch & Meece, 2008)

Meaning of Motivation
 Motivation is an inner drive that causes you to do something and persevere
at something. It energizes you to do something. It is the strength of the drive
toward an action. While ability refers to what children can do, motivation
refers to what these children will do. Motivation refers to the initiation,
direction, intensity and persistence of behavior. When we get motivated to
do something, it is not enough that we start working at that thing but that we
get attracted to it. Our attraction towards it becomes so intense that we
persist working on it through thick and thin until its completion. Learner’s
motivation is the primary factor influencing both performance and success in
school.

Indicators of a High Level of Motivation

Your student’s level of motivation is shown in his/her choice of action,

intensity and persistence of effort. If you have a highly motivated student,
you have a student who is excited about learning an accomplishing things.
S/he takes the initiative to undertake learning tasks, assignments and projects
without being pushed by his/her teachers and parents. S/he has goals to
accomplish and dreams to realize. S/he is convinced that accomplishing
things s/he is asked to accomplish in class helps her/him realize the goals
s/he has set for herself/himself and his/her dream in life. S/he is willing to
give up the satisfaction of immediate goals for the sake of more important
remote goals. An example is her willingness to give up joining his/her
barkada to watch a movie in order to prepare thoroughly for final
examinations. A student who is highly motivated to learn enjoys learning
and learns much more than the one who is not as motivated. S/he persists
and perseveres in her/his studies even when things turn out to be difficult.
S/he does not give up easily. As a result, his/her performance is satisfactory.
In contrast, a student who is not motivated to learn does not enjoy learning,
does not study unless “pushed”. When s/he feels the difficulty of study, s/he
readily gives up. S/he lacks perseverance.

Types of Motivation

Motivation is classified as either intrinsic or extrinsic. It is

intrinsic when the source of motivation is from within the person

himself/herself or the activity itself. It is motivation to engage in an

activity for its own sake (Schunk et al, 2008). An example is when a

student reads pocketbooks because s/he herself/himself wants to read

them or because reading them is in itself worthwhile and enjoyable.

Motivation is extrinsic when that which motivates a person is someone

or something outside him/her. When a student studies because s/he was

told by her/his teacher or because s/he is afraid to fail and his/her parents

will make her/him stop schooling or because it will lead to a good grade,
we can say that s/he is extrinsically motivated. Extrinsic motivation is

motivation to engage in an activity as a means to an end. In our

examples, the student studies to please her/his teacher, parents or to get a

good grade. He does not study for the joy of studying.

Obviously, intrinsic motivation is more beneficial than extrinsic

motivation because intrinsic motivation comes from within the person

himself/herself. If that which motivates a person is something or

someone outside, the moment that person or that something is gone, the

person’s motivation is also gone. Intrinsic motivation is evident when

people engage in an activity for its own sake, without some obvious

external incentive present. Reading for no reason other than the joy of

reading illustrates intrinsic motivation.

Research indicates that intrinsic motivation is preferable because of

its focus on learning and understanding.

The Role of Extrinsic Motivation

Initially, extrinsic motivation is necessary to develop the love for

learning among poorly motivated students. If good grades, rewards,

praises or words of encouragement or fear of failing grade can motivate

unmotivated students to study, why not? For as long as students are

hardly motivated, external motivation in the form of rewards, incentives

or punishment play a significant role in the development of motivated

students.

It is expected, however, that these extrinsic motivational factors be

gradually replaced by internal motivation. In the concrete, this means that

after motivating the students to study by way of reward, praise,

encouragement, punishment, hopefully the students develop the genuine

love for learning and becomes intrinsically motivated in the process. In

short, we may begin employing extrinsic motivation at the start but this

should fade away as the students get intrinsically motivated themselves.

Application

Now it is your time to apply your understanding about the types of

motivation. Answer the following questions. (use separate sheets if

necessary)

1. Try to look back on your learning experiences. Can you cite some

examples of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation in your life as a

student?

2. Are there any instances that extrinsic motivation is necessary? Give

examples.

3. Some of the people argue that using rewards put students into the

wrong message about learning and there are research suggesting that

rewards actually decrease interest in intrinsically motivating tasks.

Explain.

Closure

Congratulations! It is a job well done. You already finished the lesson two.

Keep on learning and honing up your understanding. I am expecting that

you will do your best in this new normal type of learning.

Lesson 3.2

Module No.

and Title
3 MOTIVATION OF LEARNERS

Lesson No.

and Title

3.2 Academic Motivation

Learning

Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to...

1. define the concept of academic motivation in a personal

perspective;

2. relate academic motivational components in the practical learning

experience.

3. create an instructional plan emphasizing the importance of

motivation in a lesson.

Time Frame 3 hours

Introduction Good day my young educator. How are you today? It seems
that you are

as excited as I am to go back to school and see your friends and

professors. But I guess, time won’t allow us to do that because of the

pandemic we are facing today. Nevertheless, it will not stop us from

learning few concept about facilitating learner-centered teaching.

Have fun while doing the tasks expected in this module during the new

normal. Good luck!

Activity
Instruction: Observe to pictures in terms of its emotion/feelings and try to

list your observations in the blank provided below:

Picture 1 Picture 2

Write your response on this table.

Observations

Picture 1

Observations

Picture 2

Analysis Guide Questions:

1. Based on your observations, what is/are the difference/s between the

two pictures? Write a short explanation.

Abstraction

This article summarizes motivational components (or constructs) that have

been found to impact student learning, including beliefs/perceptions, goals,
values, and intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation.

What Is Academic Motivation?

Academic motivation is defined as a student’s desire regarding academic

subjects. Usher et al (2012).

Motivation is seen to students through their approach, persistence, and level

of interest when the student’s competence is judged against a standard of
performance or excellence.

Academic motivation is a broad term incorporating many concepts studied

by scholars which include self-efficacy, determination and resilience. All of
these terms are incorporated characteristics that are related to motivation
(Steinmayr et al, 2019).

Academic motivational components that significantly impact students

learning:
 1. Beliefs/perception which subdivided into three key concepts:

Personal beliefs or perceptions of motivation include self-efficacy,

autonomy, and attributional beliefs.

A. Self-efficacy, also called efficacy expectations, is an individual’s

personal beliefs in his or her ability to perform and accomplish tasks
(Bandura, 1997; Schunk & Pajares, 2002). Students are efficacious or
competent when they think they can meet the challenge of their
school work. Students with high efficacy expectations take on
challenging tasks, put forth efforts, persist when faced with
difficulties, and believe that they will succeed in the future (Schunk
& Pajares, 2002; Schunk & Zimmerman, 1997). Students with low
self-efficacy for learning tend to avoid trying tasks, avoid making an
effort, and readily quit when they encounter learning difficulties
(Bandura, 1993; Pajares, 1996; Schunk, 1991).
B. Autonomy is a term that signifies personal beliefs that individuals
have control over their own learning and decision making. Students’
psychological need for autonomy can be met by classroom teachers
and other school personnel creating an autonomy-supportive
environment by providing choices for learning activities and by
students experiencing initial success with their choices. When the
autonomy need is met, students tend to be more actively engaged in
their learning activities and willingly devote time and energy to
learning as learning becomes self-endorsed and self-determined
(Niemiec & Ryan, 2009; Ryan & Deci, 2000b, 2006).
C. Attributional beliefs are personal theories regarding why things
happen in individuals’ lives and how they explain other people’s
success or failure. Understanding how students attribute their success
and failure in school, that is, how students explain an outcome or their
understanding of why certain achievement outcomes happen, sheds
light on the source of their subsequent actions

2. Goals setting involves establishing a target to serve as the purpose of an

individual’s actions. It provides a framework within which a person
responds to events and results in a unique pattern of cognition, behavior, and
affect. Goals can be short term (proximal goals) or long term (distal goals)
with a few sub-goals that can be used to assess progress toward a final goal.

2 types of goal orientation:

a. Mastery goal-oriented students are those academically oriented to learn

and master materials and to demonstrate their competence by performing
well.

b. Students with performance goal orientation, on the other hand,

demonstrate their competence relative to others.

3. Values

When students perceive learning activities and materials with an attitude of

“It’s not worth it,” they will likely not consume efforts to learn. The amount
of time and effort spent on an activity depends on how much students value
the work, as well as “I can do it” self-efficacy beliefs. Valuing learning tasks
implies students’ reasons for engaging in learning activities. Students
perceive task value from different viewpoints, including whether materials
or activities are interesting (intrinsic value), important (attainment value),
and useful

4. Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation

 a. Students with intrinsic motivation engage in activities, in the absence of
external incentives, for the inherent challenge and curiosity, and prefer tasks
that are inherently interesting

b. Students with extrinsic motivation engage in activities to obtain some

outcomes, such as achieving rewards or avoiding punishments, separable
from the activity itself

Application

A. Few years from now, you will become a teacher. In a class, you

will meet different types of students with different beliefs and

perceptions. What will you do to motivate them to learn personally

sensitive issues like career aspirations or sex education?

Provide necessary details in the table below:

Motivational

type of student Teaching Strategy Short Description

Self-efficient

Autonomous

Attributional

B. Among the four academic motivational components, which do you

think that will best describe you? Support your answer.

C. Using your area of specialization, make an instructional

plan/lesson plan that will draw interest to your future learners.

You may use any format of your plan.

Closure

Good job. You are done with lesson one in this module. I am expecting

that you continue your interest in learning new concepts during this new

Normal.

Lesson 3.3
 Module No. and Title

3 MOTIVATION OF LEARNERS

Lesson [Link] Title

3.3 ARCS Model of Motivation

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to...

1. acquire the concept of ARCS model of motivation;

2. present learning strategies that respond to type of academic motivation

under the ARCS model; and

3. describe the ARCS model in the context of instructional motivational

strategies.

Time Frame 2 hours

Introduction

How’s the day my future educator? I hope you are doing great. I believe you
have adjusted already to the new way of learning. You have proven that you
can learn on your own. Today, you will be learning another theory that will
best assist you as a future educator.

Have fun while doing the tasks expected in this module during the
newnormal. Good luck!

Activity

Activity: FEEL ME IN

Instruction: Identify the FEELINGS describe in each item.

___________1. the action of dealing with or taking special care of someone

or something.

__________ 2. the quality or state of being closely connected or appropriate.

__________ 3. the feeling or belief that one can rely on someone or

something; firm trust.

__________ 4. a pleasant feeling that you get when you receive something
you wanted, or when you have done something you wanted to do

Analysis

Guide Questions:

1. Enumerate the four feelings identified in the activity above.

2. ___________________ 3. ____________________

3. __________________ 4. ____________________

2. If all these feelings are your experienced, how would it affect your
studies? You may answer in a word.

_______________________

Abstraction

This article summarizes motivational components (or constructs) that have

been found to impact student learning, including beliefs/perceptions, goals,
values, and intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation. As a teacher, we always say
that motivation plays an important role for an individual to keep going.
Indeed, it is an important foundation in the academic path of every student.
In fact, even an infant is interested to learn the world around them. Without
motivation, students lead not only to underachievement but as well skipping
to learn. This is due to the negative experiences of most students and begin
to stop trying hard since they think that their effort will not make any
difference. This where the model of John Keller’s ARCS instructional
model is anchored upon. ARCS is a model that highlights on motivation. It
emphasizes that learners have to be motivated to ensure them to continually
learn and achieve expected outcomes especially in the new normal
instruction

Figure 1: ARCS Motivational Model

ARCS design I subdivided in to four, namely:

1. Attention- it refers to the learners’ interest that is critical to get and hold
their interests and attention.

Two ways to gain attention:

a. Perceptual arousal – uses surprise or uncertainly to gain interest. Uses

novel, surprising, incongruous, and uncertain events

b. Inquiry arousal – stimulates curiosity by posing challenging questions or

problems to be solved.

Methods for grabbing attention:

a. Active participation -Adopt strategies such as games, roleplay or other

hands-on methods to get learners involved with the material or subject
matter.
b. Variability – To better reinforce materials and account for individual
differences in learning styles, use a variety of methods in presenting material
(e.g. use of videos, short lectures, mini-discussion groups).

c. Humor -Maintain interest by use a small amount of humor (but not too
much to be distracting)

d. Incongruity and Conflict – A devil’s advocate approach inwhich

statements are posed that go against a learner’s past experiences.

e. Specific examples – Use a visual stimuli, story, or biography.

f. Inquiry – Pose questions or problems for the learners to solve,

e.g. brainstorming activities

2. Relevance can assist increase a learner’s motivation. Using

concrete language and examples with which the learners are

familiar. The learning process should show the usefulness of the

content so that learners can bridge the gap between content and the

real world.

This includes:

a. Experience – Tell the learners how the new learning will use their existing
skills.

b. Present Worth – What will the subject matter do for me today?

c. Future Usefulness – What will the subject matter do for me tomorrow?

d. Needs Matching – Take advantage of the dynamics of achievement, risk

taking, power, and affiliation.

e. Modeling – First of all, “be what you want them to do!”

f. Choice – Allow the learners to use different methods to pursue their work
or allowing s choice in how they organize it.

3. Confidence helps students understand their likelihood for success.

If they feel they cannot meet the objectives or that the cost (time or

effort) is too high, their motivation will decrease. This component

focuses on developing success expectation among learners, and

success expectation allow learners to control their learning

processes.

Components:
a. Grow the Learners – Allow for small steps of growth during the

learning process.

b. Feedback – Provide feedback and support internal attributions for

success.

c. Learner Control – Learners should feel some degree of control over their
learning and assessment. They should believe that their success is a direct
result of the amount of their effort.

4. Satisfaction- learning must be rewarding or satisfying in some way,

whether it is from a sense of achievement, praise from a higher-up, or mere
entertainment.

There is direct relation between motivation and satisfaction. Learners should

be satisfied of what they achieved during the learning process.

Three forms:

a. Intrinsic reinforcement (“I feel good about what I have learned”)

b. Extrinsic reinforcement (awards like money, medals or token)

c. Equity (positive feedbacks)

Application

Present motivational strategies under each component of ARCS model in

the field of expertise. Complete the table below (use separate sheet):

Topic Components (Arcs) Description

Attention:

Relevance:

Confidence:

Satisfaction:

Closure

Good job. You are done with lesson one in this module. I am expecting
that you continue your interest in learning new concepts during this new

normal.

MODULE ASSESSMENT

(After the students have read and studied all the lessons in the module, it is
at the

institutional level to decide whether to administer assessment in any forms.

This part

allows flexibility within the institution.)

MODULE SUMMARY

Motivation refers to the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of

behavior. When we get motivated to do something, it is not enough that we

start working at that thing but that we get attracted to it.

Intrinsic motivation refers to the self as the source of motivation to do

something. It is motivation to engage in an activity for its own sake (Schunk

et

al, 2008).

August 1, 2020

101

Motivation is extrinsic when what motivates a person to do something

comes

from someone or something outside him/her.

The ARCS model explains the importance to build student motivation to

learn

and participate in any classroom activity. It further explains that the higher
the

motivation the higher the productivity of students.

Each component in the ARCS model has specific strategy in motivating the

learning of the students.

To motivate student learning ARCS model is helpful in the instructional

context. Attention is the way of using humor and inquiry like visual or

auditory stimuli; allowing the students to build prior skills and knowledge

relevant; confidence is built when achieving small but achievable goals for

students; and letting the students understand that learning should rewarding.

Intrinsic motivation is shown in the enjoyment of the activity itself and the

inner conviction of the learner that such things are the right things to do in

order to realize a personal goal or a life dream. Intrinsic motivation yields

more advantages than extrinsic motivation.

Extrinsic motivation plays an indispensable function when a learner is not

yet

intrinsically motivated to learn. For optimum learning, this extrinsic

motivation, however, must gradually take the back seat as intrinsic

motivation

comes to the fore.

Motivated students have the following characteristic traits: have positive

attitudes toward school and describe school as satisfying; persist on difficult

tasks and cause few management problems; process information in depth

and

excel in classroom learning expertise (Stipek, 1996, 2002 cited by Woolfok,

2013).

REFERENCES

Corpuz, B. B., & Lucas, M. D. (2014). Meaning and Types of Motivation. In

P. B.

Corpuz, & P. M. Lucas, Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process (pp.

211-215). LORIMAR Publishing, INC.

Rowell, L. & Hong, E. (2013). Academic Motivation: Concepts, Strategies,

and

Counseling Approaches.

August 1, 2020
102

[Link]
277363978_Academic_Motivation_C

oncepts_Strategies_and_Counseling_Approaches

Steinmayr, R., Weidinger, A. F., Schwinger, M., & Spinath, B. (2019). The

Importance of Students’ Motivation for Their Academic Achievement –

Replicating and Extending Previous Findings. Frontiers in Psychology,

volume

10, article 1730. [Link]

Schunk, D.H., Pintrich, P.R & Meece, J.L. (2008). Motivation in Education:
Theory,

Thinking Theories. (2020). ARCS Model Of Motivational Design Theories

(Keller).

Retrieved from [Link]

[Link]

Texas Tech University. (n.d.). ARCS Model of Motivation.

[Link]
ARCS-

[Link]

Usher E.L., Morris D.B. (2012) Academic Motivation. In: Seel N.M. (eds)

Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning. Springer, Boston, MA.

[Link]

Woolfok, A. (2013). Educational Psychology, 12th ed. Pearson Education,

Inc.:

NJ,USA, 2013)

Lesson 4.1

Module No.
and Title

4 EMOTION OF LEARNERS

Lesson No.

and Title

Emotional Responses of Learners

Learning

Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to...

1. define emotion

2. demonstrate kinds of emotional responses

3. reflect on the different emotions and its effect to you as a learner

August 1, 2020

104

Time Frame 1.5 hrs.

Introduction Setting new benchmark for you, future educator is no mean

task. Have

fun in involving yourself in the activities and exercises of this module

because this is intended not only for drill and evaluative purposes but an

advocacy for current trends in education such as reflective learning,

emotions and emotional responses. Welcome to the new normal. Have

fun!
Activity At this point, try to think deeply of a situation in the past which you
went

through in school that made you feel the following emotions listed

below:

Types of

Emotions

I felt this way when......

Sad

Angry

Disappointed

Shy

Guilty

Discomfort

Bitter

Resentment

Happy

Surprised

Analysis Guide Questions for Discussion

1. Define the different emotions in the activity 1.

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

2. What are the implications of these different emotions to you as future

August 1, 2020
105

educator?

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

Abstraction Definition of Emotions

There are many different types of emotions that have an influence on how
we live and interact with others. At times, it may seem like we are ruled by
these emotions. The choices we make, the actions we take, and the
perceptions we have are all influenced by the emotions we are experiencing
at any given moment. Emotions are all those feelings that so change men as
to affect their judgement, and that are also attended by pain or pleasure,
wrote Aristotle (384-322 BCE). Some emotions are very specific, in so far
as they concern a particular person, object, or situation. Others, such as
distress, joy, or depression are very general. Some emotions are very brief
and barely conscious, such as a sudden flush of embarrassment or a burst of
anger. Others, such as long-lasting love or simmering resentment, are
protracted, lasting hours, months, or even years (in which case they can
become a durable feature of an individual’s personality). An emotion may
have pronounced physical accompaniments, such as facial expression, or it
may be invisible to observers. An emotion may involve conscious
experience and reflection, as when one “wallows” in it, or it may pass
virtually unnoticed and unacknowledged by the subject. An emotion may be
profound, in the sense that it is essential to one’s physical survival or mental
health, or it may be trivial or dysfunctional. An emotion may be socially
appropriate or inappropriate.

Types of Emotional Responses

a. Subjective Experience

While experts believe that there are a number of basic universal emotions
that are experienced by people all over the world regardless of background
or culture, researchers also believe that experiencing emotion can be highly
subjective. Consider anger, for example. Is all anger the same? Your own
experience might range from mild annoyance to blinding rage. While we
have broad labels for emotions such as "angry," "sad," or "happy," your own
experience of these emotions may be much more multi-dimensional, hence
[Link] also don't always experience pure forms of each emotion.
Mixed emotions over different events or situations in our lives are common.
When faced with starting a new job, you might feel both excited and
nervous. Getting married or having a child might be marked by a wide
variety of emotions ranging from joy to anxiety. These emotions might
occur simultaneously, or you might feel them one after another.

b. Physiological Response
If you've ever felt your stomach lurch from anxiety or your heart palpatewith
fear, then you realize that emotions also cause strong physiological
reactions. Many of the physiological responses you experience during an
emotion, much as sweaty palms or a racing heartbeat, are regulated by the
sympathetic nervous system, a branch of the autonomic nervous system. The
autonomic nervous system controls involuntary body responses, such as
blood flow and digestion. The sympathetic nervous system is charged with
controlling the body's fight or flight reactions. When facing a threat, these
responses automatically prepare your body to flee from danger or face the
threat head-on. While early studies of the physiology of emotion tended to
focus on these autonomic responses, more recent research has targeted the
brain's role in emotions. Brain scans have shown that the amygdala, part of
the limbic system, plays an important role in emotion and fear in particular.
5 The amygdala itself is a tiny, almond-shaped structure that has been
linked to motivational states such as hunger and thirst as well as memory
and emotion. Researchers have used brain imaging to show that when people
are shown threatening images, the amygdala becomes activated. Damage to
the amygdala has also been shown to impair the fear response.6

c. Behavioral Response

The final component is perhaps one that you are most familiar with—the
actual expression of emotion. We spend a significant amount of time
interpreting the emotional expressions of the people around us. Our ability to
accurately understand these expressions is tied to what psychologists call
emotional intelligence, and these expressions play a major part in our overall
body language. Research suggests that many expressions are universal, such
as a smile to indicate happiness or a frown to indicate sadness.
Sociocultural norms also play a role in how we express and interpret
emotions.

In Japan, for example, people tend to mask displays of fear or disgust when
an authority figure is present. Similarly, Western cultures like the United
States are more likely to express negative emotions both alone and in the
presence of others, while eastern cultures like Japan are morem likely to do
so while alone.7

D. Academic Emotions

As future educators, we need to fully recognize the role of emotions in

learning. We need to view our students’ emotional state as a subjective
experience, physiological response and behavioral response within the
learning environment that is being created and managed by the teacher.
Rentiers and Rivers (2014) in fact described emotions as playing a critical
role in the learning and teaching process because they impact on learners’
motivation, self-regulation and academic achievement. According to
Pekrun’s UNESCO book series on Emotions in Learning published in 2014,
there are four groups of academic emotions that are especially relevant for
students’ learning which are shown in the figure below.

Figure 1. Four Groups of Academic Emotions of Learners

Achievement Emotions relate to achievement activities and to success and
failure resulting from these activities. Achievement emotions are pervasive in
academic settings, especially so when the importance of success and failure is
made clear to students.

Examples are enjoyment of learning; hope and pride related to success; and
anxiety and shame related to failure.

Epistemic Emotions are emotions triggered by cognitive problems. Epistemic

emotions are especially important in learning with new, non-routine tasks.
Examples are

curiosity or surprise about a new learning task

confusion and frustration about obstacles

delight when the problem is solved

Topic Emotions pertain to the topics presented in lessons. Both positive and
negative topic emotions can trigger students’ interest in learning material.
Examples are

empathy with the fate of one of the characters portrayed in a novel

anxiety and disgust when dealing with a health pandemic issues

enjoyment of a painting discussed in an art course

Social Emotions relate to teachers and peers in the classroom. These

emotions are especially important in teacher/student interaction and in group
learning. Example are

love for peers and teacher

sympathy and compassion for classmates

admiration for teachers and groupmates

contempt or anger for negligence of peers in group tasks or projects

social anxiety over peer acceptance

Given these different triggers of emotions in the classroom, it is no wonder

that a teacher must be equipped and ready to manage and respond
proactively to the emotional state of the learners Being ignorant or blind to
the emotional undercurrents in the learning environment can be very
counterproductive to a learner-centered approach to teaching. You must
learn to become sensitive to the academic-related emotions of learners as a
subjective experience, a physiological response, and a behavioral response in
your class.
Application

After knowing the emotional responses and group

of emotions that can be felt by your students as it

applies to their learning experience, let us now

think of ways how to apply these concepts in your

future teaching practice.

Answer the following reflective questions:

Statement 1

The neglect of emotions is alarming given that ‘‘emotion is the

foundation of learning’’ (Zull 2006, p. 7).

Statement 2

Emotions stimulate learners’ attention and trigger the learning process.

They affect what is learned and what is retained. (Tyng et al, 2017).

Statement 3

Numerous studies across a range of disciplines including neuroscience,

education, and psychology have revealed that emotions play an

important role in learning (Seli et al. 2016; Um et al. 2012).

1. Read the 3 statement above and paraphrase them into a single

sentence.

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

2. Who would be a good choice of a person to share your feelings

with? State your reason.

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________
3. If you noticed that your students are afraid of sharing their feelings

with you as a teacher, what do you think can help them express

freely their feeling to you?

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

4. What do you think is a good outlet for reducing student’s stress and

coping with tough academic requirement or situation?

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

Closure Congratulations!! you have finished this part of your lesson about

emotions and emotional responses of your future learners. You can also

impart your own reflections about this lessons with your classmates and

friends via your facebook page of our course.

Lesson 4.2

Module No.

and Title

Module 4: EMOTIONS OF LEARNERS

Lesson No.

and Title

4.2 Emotional Intelligence

Learning

Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to...

4. define emotional intelligence;

5. describe the components that make up emotional intelligence;

6. write a reflection on the effectiveness of EI in the learning

experience of students

Time Frame 2 hours

Introduction

Welcome to Module 4 – AFFECT.

How is your day my future educator? I hope you are doing great. I

believe you have already adjusted to the new way of learning. You have

proven that you can learn on your own.

Today, you will be learning a different kind of intelligence that will best

assist you as a future educator.

Read with your heart and mind so that you will better understand what

this intelligence is all about.

Enjoy the tasks expected in this module during the new normal.

GOODLUCK!

Activity

Activity1 : DEFINE ME
Instruction: Identify the components defined in each item.

__________ [Link] is the perceiving level of EI

__________ 2. it is the thinking or cognitive level of EI

__________ 3. it is the perceiving with wide variety of meanings

__________ 4. it is the managing of emotions effectively

Analysis

Guide Questions:

1. Enumerate the four components of emotional intelligence identified in

the activity above.

4. ___________________ 3. ____________________

5. __________________ 4. ____________________

2. If you have encountered the definition of emotional intelligence, how

would it affect your studies? You may answer in a word.

_______________________

This article

summarizes motivational components

(or constructs) that have been found

to impact student learning, including

beliefs/perceptions, goals, values, and

intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation.

Abstraction

As a teacher, we always say that emotional intelligence plays an

important role for an individual to keep going. Indeed, it is an important

foundation in the academic path of every student. In fact, even a child is

interested to learn what is happening around him/her.

With emotional intelligence, students are not only lead to

achievement but success in learning as well. This is due to the positive

experiences of students.

Emotional Intelligence includes the ability to engage in

sophisticated information processing about one's own and others'

emotions and the ability to use this information as a guide to thinking and

behaviour.

Components

Mayer & Salovey (2000) suggest that there are four different

levels of emotional intelligence including emotional perception, the

ability to reason using emotions, the ability to understand emotions, and

the ability to manage emotions.

1. Perceiving emotions

The first step in understanding emotions is to perceive them

accurately. In many cases, this might involve understanding

nonverbal signals such as body language and facial expressions.

2. Reasoning with emotions

The next step involves using emotions to promote thinking and

cognitive activity. Emotions help prioritize what we pay attention

and react to. We respond emotionally to things that garner our

attention.

3. Understanding emotions

The emotions that we perceive can carry a wide variety of

meanings. If someone is expressing angry emotions, the observer

must interpret the cause of the person's anger and what it could

mean. For example, if your teacher is acting angry, it might mean

that they are dissatisfied with your work, or it could be because

they got caught in a check point on their way to work that morning

or that they have been fighting with their partner.

4. Managing emotions

The ability to manage emotions effectively is a crucial part of

emotional intelligence and the highest level. Regulating emotions

and responding appropriately as well as responding to the

emotions of others are all important aspects of emotional

management.

The four branches of this model are arranged by complexity with

the more basic processes at the lower levels and the more advanced

processes at the higher levels. For example, the lowest levels involve

perceiving and expressing emotion, while higher levels require greater

conscious involvement and involve regulating emotions. The chart below

can best explain the levels of EI.

Figure 1. A circular depiction of the four-branch model of Emotional

Intelligence

(Mayer & Salovey 1997)

Impact of Emotional Intelligence

Interest in teaching and learning social and emotional intelligence

has grown in recent years. Social and emotional learning (SEL) programs

have become a standard part of the curriculum for many schools.

The goal of these initiatives is not only to improve health and well-

being but also to help students succeed academically and prevent bullying.
There are many examples of how emotional intelligence can play a role in

daily life. Emotionally intelligent people know that emotions can be

powerful, but also temporary. When a highly charged emotional event

happens, such as becoming angry with a co-worker, the emotionally

intelligent response would be to take some time before responding. This

allows everyone to calm their emotions and think more rationally about

all the factors surrounding the argument.

Emotionally intelligent people are not only good at thinking about

how other people might feel but they are also adept at understanding their

own feelings. Self-awareness allows people to consider the many different

factors that contribute to their emotions.

A large part of emotional intelligence is being able to think about

and empathize with how other people are feeling. This often involves

considering how you would respond if you were in the same situation.

People who have strong emotional intelligence are able to consider the

perspectives, experiences, and emotions of other people and use this

information to explain why people behave the way that they do.

Effective Ways to Use EI

Emotional intelligence can be used in many different ways in one's daily

life. Some different ways to practice emotional intelligence include:

(The picture depicts the many different ways in one’s life how we use
emotional intelligence)

Being able to accept criticism and responsibility

Being able to move on after making a mistake

Being able to say no when you need to

Being able to share your feelings with others

Being able to solve problems in ways that work for everyone

Having empathy for other people

Having great listening skills

Knowing why you do the things you do

Not being judgemental of others

Emotional intelligence is essential for good interpersonal communication.

Some experts believe that this ability is more important in determining

life success than IQ alone. Fortunately, there are things that you can do to

strengthen your own social and emotional intelligence. Understanding

emotions can be the key to better relationships, improved well-being, and

stronger communication skills.

Application REFLECTION

Direction: Based on how effective EI can be used in different settings,

write a reflection on how effective EI is in your learning experience in the

space provided below.

Closure

Good job. You are done with lesson one in this module. I am expecting

that you continue your interest in learning new concepts during this new
normal.

Lesson 4.3

Module No.

and Title

4 EMOTIONS OF LEARNERS
Lesson No.

and Title

4.3 Positive Teacher - Student Relations

Learning

Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to...

1. Define what is relationship;

2. Describe what is a positive teacher-student relationship;

3. Explain the importance of a positive teacher-student relationship

Time Frame 2 hours

Introduction Congratulations for finishing Lesson 4.2. Your persistence will

bring you

success not only in your studies but in the real life as well. However, it is

important that we continue on learning so we develop not only a wholistic

person but a person with a holistic personality as well. Thus, I bring you

to the next lesson on Positive Teacher - Student Relationship

Activity Activity 1: What’s the WORD

Directions: Think of a word/phrase that you can associate with

“RELATIONSHIP”. Afterwards, create a definition based on your

answers.

MY DEFINITION:
___________________________________________________________

Analysis

Guide Questions:

1. What did you realize upon giving the different meanings of the

August 1, 2020

117

word relationship?

2. Was it easy or difficult for you to give the meaning of the word

relationship?

Abstraction This article

summarizes motivational components

(or constructs) that have been found

to impact student learning, including

beliefs/perceptions, goals, values, and

intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation.

Teacher–student relationships are accepted as influential but the

dynamics of the said relationships are not well understood, especially with

difficult students.

Positive relationships with students, in which high levels of affiliation

prevail are one of the primary reasons for teachers to stay in the

profession ( O'Connor, 2008; Veldman, van Tartwijk, Brekelmans, &

Wubbels, 2013).

Moreover, it is one of the most important sources of enjoyment of, and

motivation for, teaching (Hargreaves, 2000). On the other hand,

problematic teacher–student relationships which are characterized by

conflict and low levels of affiliation are mentioned by teachers to be

sources of stress and negative emotions (Yoon, 2002). Overall, there is

consensus that the most common sources of teacher work stress stem from

relationships with individual students (Friedman, 2006).

Positive relationships

Context in positive relationships

In most accounts of positive

relationships, teachers describe teacher or

student interpersonal behaviour taking

place out of class. Most behaviour

described in positive relationships took

place outside the class context. Although

mainly situated before or after the lesson

in the classroom or in the hallway,

teachers recognize fieldtrips as important

opportunities to build and maintain

relationships and contact with students

outside school life, such as on occasions

when meeting up to go to a movie or a concert or coincidental meetings

that occur due to living in the same areas.

Topic of talk in positive relationships

In class, the topic of talk mainly revolves around the subject taught and
coursework or classroom management, although informal talk like

joking around with the student is also possible.

In the out-of-class context, the topics of conversation can be more

diverse. Talk again involves the subject taught or classroom management.

It can also involve student need, disturbing student behavior and, mostly,
informal talk. When a student's need becomes the topic of the

conversation, this mainly concern problems a student experienced at

home, problems at school in general like bullying or problems with the

student's future career like what subjects to choose.

Informal talk mainly concerns mutual interests such as hobbies or

interest in one another's private life, joking around or greeting each other

when passing. Although in some accounts of positive relationships the

topics could be highly varied, there are others where teacher and student

talk mainly involved one topic. This especially applies to informal talk,

student's needs, and subject as main topics for conversation.

Interpersonal teacher and student behaviour in positive relationships

Teachers' talk shows that teachers experience students with whom they

have a positive relationship to be mostly supporting and collaborating in

class. Teachers describe students as being highly engaged during the

lesson. They share their thoughts on a subject and volunteer on questions.

Sometimes these students even take control of their own learning.

Interactions in positive relationships

Sequences of behaviour between teacher and student are so called

interactions. Complementarity in interactions describe the most probable

reaction an action invites. On the communion dimension, a

complementary reaction consists of a similar response in terms of

friendliness or hostility; on the agency dimension, a complementary

reaction consists of an opposite response, thus dominant behavior evokes

submissive reactions and vice versa.

Complementarity on the communion dimension is a friendly

interaction such as a teacher showing supportive behavior and a student

reacting in a collaborating manner while a hostile interaction such as the

teacher showing confronting behavior and a student reacting in an equally

confronting manner. Complementarity, teacher shows behavior high on

agency such as directing, supporting, confronting and imposing followed

by submissive student behavior. Teacher behavior low on agency such as

understanding, acquiescing, hesitating and objecting followed by student

behavior high on agency.

Thus, teacher–student relationships require effort from the teacher,

especially when there is a lack of connection on a personal level with a

student. Teachers need to investigate the effectiveness of conscious

strategies in which non complementary teacher behavior is used to

improve relationships with students within classrooms. It has been found

out that the positive effects of teacher programs focused on teacher–

student relationships are very important (e.g., Alvarez, 2007; Roorda,

Koomen, Thijs, & Oort, 2013). Reflecting on their positive and

problematic relationship may increase teachers' awareness of their

idiosyncratic presuppositions and biases in the emerging of teacher–

student relationships. This awareness may help teachers to maintain a

professional stance; not to react to student behavior based on biases, and

making an effort to connect with all students.

Finally, positive relationships with individual students is an important

source of enjoyment and motivation of teachers and problematic ones as

causing stress and negative emotions (Friedman, 2006 ;

Hargreaves, 2000 ; Yoon, 2002).

Application

Activity 2 – Getting to Know Ma’am/Sir

Directions: Get a partner in class and share your answers from the guide

questions (You each have 2mins. to share). Afterwards, make a collage of

teachers whom you have developed a positive relationship in the teaching-

learning community.

([Link])

[Link] you think of a teacher(s) with whom you have a positive

relationship?

Can you give the first name of the teacher?

Can you describe this relationship?

Can you describe ...[name of teacher}?

What do you think ...[name of teacher] thinks of you?

How do you generally interact with each other in class?

What feeling does ...[name of teacher] evoke?

[Link] have you learned from the teacher in your interactions

with her/him in relation to teaching-learning?

Closure Great work! You are finished with lesson two in this module. I
expect that

you continue on motivating yourself in the learning of new

concepts during this new normal.

LESSON 4.4

Module No.

and Title

Module 4: EMOTIONS OF LEARNERS

Lesson No.
and Title

4.4 Positive Peer Relations

Learning

Outcomes At the end of this lesson, you are expected to...

1. Define positive relations;

2. Discuss the different learning theories that affect positive peer

relations;

3. Present case presentations applying the learning theories that

affect positive peer relations.

Time Frame 2 hours

Introduction

Congratulations for finishing Lesson 4.3. Your persistence will bring

you success not only in your studies but in the real life as well. However,

it is important that we continue on learning so we develop not only a

wholistic person but a person with a holistic personality as well. Thus, I

bring you to the next lesson on Positive Peer Relations among Students

Activity Activity: WHAT CAN YOU SAY?

Directions: Examine the picture below. List down your observations

based on how these students behave in going back to school. Be specific

on your comments.
August 1, 2020

121

Source: [Link].606792041

Comments:

1. _______________________________________________

2. _______________________________________________

3. _______________________________________________

Analysis Guide Questions:

1. Why do you think the learners behaved that way in the picture?

2. Based on the activity above, define positive relations?

Abstraction This article

summarizes motivational components

(or constructs) that have been found

to impact student learning, including

beliefs/perceptions, goals, values, and

intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation.

The interactions among peers in the classroom are a normal and

essential part of the learning process that influence the lifelong learning

habits of students. The potential effects of peer relationships are

reciprocal: some students are more receptive than others. On one

extreme, for example, is the student who values and seeks peer input on

every decision. On the other side is the social isolate who avoids

interaction in and out of the classroom. This entry can influence

learners, including developmental differences, motivational and

learning considerations, and the function of the classroom contexts.

Most people would agree that few things impacted their school

lives as much as their relationships with their peers—friends,

acquaintances, or otherwise. Peer relationships play an important role in

children’s school lives, and relationships with peers become even more

influential as children enter adolescence.

Positive peer relationships often distinguishes between friendship

and peer acceptance. High-quality friendships involve not only

companionship, but also caring, validation, and support. In addition to

playing together, good friends feel comfortable opening up to each

other and are motivated to resolve conflicts that arise.

Peer acceptance, sometimes referred to as popularity, focuses on

how much students like or like to play with their classmates which has

been found to affect students’ sense of belonging in school and

their academic achievement.

Learning Motivation and Relationships

The age of the student is one consideration in weighing the

importance and application of motivation to learn. Human relationships

have varying degrees of importance in motivational and learning

theories. Most approaches tend to agree, however, that students who

surround themselves with peers and influences who value learning and

the educational process will also value their own learning and strive to

enhance their education.

Abraham H. Maslow viewed the need for love and belongingness as

a step toward achievement in his hierarchy of motivation model, which

he described in 1954. In this view, the deprivation of more basic needs

hinders progress along the path to achievement. In Maslow's model,

people must have love and belongingness issues satisfied in order to

address needs of achievement. For example, a student with deprived

relationship concerns will be less able to participate in classroom

learning opportunities. The ability to learn is built on a foundation of

comfortable relationships with others, including peers and family, and

classroom learning is all about learning with and in the presence of

others.

"Expectancy by value" theories define motivation as the product of

the amount of success on a task that an individual expects to earn times

the amount of value the individual places on the task. Thus, a task that

the individual values and expects to be successful at will be motivating

compared to a task with lower expected success or value. Whereas past

experience can predict the expectancy aspect of this model such as the

student has done well on prior essay exams wherein the value placed

on the task is more mediated by outside factors, such as peers and

family giving respect to the student's opinions. Related motivational

theories include the incentive or rewarding aspects of motivation, which

may also stem from relationships with others.

Behaviorism provides one way to

explain the association between

motivation to learn and peer

interactions. In basic behaviorist

theories, relationships between people

affect learning only as much as people

reinforce each other (or not) in the

academic arena. For example, if the

peer group encourages education and

learning, then the individual student

within that group will value learning,

because the individual is reinforced, or rewarded, for behaviour that

indicates that learning is valued. Students in peer groups that do not

value education lack the stimulation and reinforcement needed to

encourage personal learning. These peer groups presumably stimulate

and reinforce other values.

Albert Bandura's social learning theory speaks precisely to the

human interactions involved in learning. Observational, or "vicarious"

learning is based upon learning by watching then "modeling" or acting

similarly to others. If the student views and works with people who

appreciate learning by engaging in learning activities, then the student

too will engage in learning and might work harder at learning. Peers

with positive attitudes and behaviours toward education will allow and

teach each other to set goals that include opportunities to learn and

achieve. If peer models do not convey positive attitudes toward

learning, then the students observing these models will not prioritize

learning in their own lives. They will learn to prioritize other goals.

In 1978 Lev Vygotsky also presented ideas on the facilitation of

learning through experiences mediated by other people. In his

explanations, the learner cannot reach full potential without the aid of

others. The processes of guiding the learner to higher stages of

cognitive functioning rely on interactive human relationships. Mentors–

for example, teachers or more capable peers–can raise the student's

competence through the zone of proximal development (ZPD). ZPD is

defined as the gap between what a student can do alone and what the

student can achieve with assistance. In this view assistance is

transitional, a "scaffold" that is removed when it is no longer needed

and the student has internalized another's support.

In sum, varied theories agree that the values and attitudes of the peer

group are essential elements in motivation and learning. Students who

surround themselves with academically focused, goal-oriented peers will

be more likely to appreciate, internalize, and exhibit these features

themselves.

Classroom Dynamics

The educational process can

be structured to boost the

learning of individuals for

younger students by providing a

whole-class environment that

enriches learning opportunities

with teachers who model positive

learning values which will set the

new learner on a path toward

academic achievement.

Encouraging students to interact

with peers, adults, and family members who have strong learning desires

can support the students' development as learners.

Although peer influences may not yet be as powerful as they will become

in student achievement motivation, the effects of young students'

interactions cannot be disregarded. As the learner matures, the

importance of how peers view the learner's actions and decisions may

well supercede the opinions of others, possibly even the views of the

learners themselves.

The academic environment needs to be structured in a fashion that allows

for student interaction but sets boundaries that afford pro-social

behaviour. Students who are concentrating on unresolved issues in their

social life, whether these issues result from social isolation or from social

or home crisis, will be less able to profit from classroom opportunities.

Recognition of the strategic effort required to maintain classroom social

and academic order can help both the learner and the teacher decide how

to approach problems.

Within the classroom, time and organization can be established to

focus students on their learning. Pairing and grouping students by their

devotion to academics for example, may benefit all involved. Those who

Students who motivate themselves in non

academic directions can view and appreciate the choices of peer learners.

These dynamics must include consideration of the types of classroom

curricula. The well-known and intended analytic curriculum taught to pre

service educators and recorded in the lesson plans and assignments may

easily disregard the underlying informal curriculum of social and human

interaction. As Mary McCaslin and Tom L. Good noted in 1996,

"Learning is socially situated"; the achievement of the student is a small

part of who the student is and what she does. The responsibilities of

education include helping students recognize their own place as social

contributors and maximizing the resources available to them through

interpersonal relationships. For example, cooperative learning and help-

seeking behaviours are essential resources for students in the classroom

that facilitate both student achievement and social competence.

Some students and educators view help-seeking as a sign of

dependence or weakness, but research supports the contention that help-

seeking is a sign of social competence that increases students' chances of

academic success. Negative attitudes toward help-seeking may

discourage low-achieving students from approaching peers and teachers

and may further isolate them. This is especially detrimental to older

students.

Students are not isolated in the pursuit of knowledge. They are social

beings who need to interact and establish social contacts. Social learning

is as much a part of any classroom curriculum as the printed guidelines.

At a minimum, the influence of peers and a student's relationships with

them can be understood as a function of student age, motivation,

learning, and classroom opportunities.

Application Activity 2 – REFLECTION

Directions: Present a case scenario involving the learning theories that

affect positive peer relations in the teaching-learning environment.

1. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

([Link])

Skinner’s behaviorism

([Link])

Bandura’s Social Learning

August 1, 2020

126

([Link])

Lev Vygotsky’s SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY

Closure

Great job! You are done with lesson three in this module. I am very

happy for your continued interest in learning new concepts during this

new normal of our time. Stay safe and be healthy!

MODULE ASSESSMENT

(After the students have read and studied all the lessons in the module, it is
at the

institutional level to decide whether to administer assessment in any forms.

This part

allows flexibility within the institution.)

MODULE SUMMARY

Emotion is important in education—it drives attention, which in turn drives

learning and memory

Students manifest three types of emotional responses: subjective,

physiological,

and behavioral.

Activity also shows the different emotions that our learner might be
experiencing

and somehow understand the certain emotions in every situations.

Emotional Intelligence includes the ability to engage in sophisticated

information

processing about one's own and others' emotions and the ability to use this
information as a guide to thinking and behavior.

Teacher–student relationships require effort from the teacher, especially

when

there is a lack of connection on a personal level with a student. Teachers

need to

investigatte the effectiveness of conscious strategies in which non

complementary teacher behavior is used to improve relationships with

students

within classrooms.

August 1, 2020

127

Students are not isolated in the pursuit of knowledge. They are social beings
who

need to interact and establish social contacts. Social learning is as much a

part of

any classroom curriculum as the printed guidelines.

The values and attitudes of the peer group are essential elements in
motivation

and learning. Students who surround themselves with academically focused,

goal-oriented peers will be more likely to appreciate, internalize, and exhibit

these features themselves.

REFERENCES

Bandura, Albert. 1996. "Multifacted Impact of Self-Efficacy Beliefs on

Academic

Functioning." Child Development 67:1,206–1,222.

Lucas, M. R. & Corpuz, B. (2014) Facilitating Learning. Cubao Quezon

City, Metro

Manila

Maslow, Abraham H. 1954. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper

and Row.

Pekrun, R. (2000). Emotions and Learning. International Academy of

Education,
International Bureau of Education.

Reuven, Bar-On, Parker,James D.A.2000 The Handbook of Emotional

Intelligence.

Jossey Bass Inc. San Francisco California

Seli, P., Wammes, J. D., Risko, E. F., & Smilek, D. (2016). On the relation
between

motivation and retention in educational contexts: The role of intentional and

unintentional mind wandering. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,23, 1280–

1287.

[Link]

Solomon, Robert. (2020) True to our Feelings: What our emotions are really
telling

us and other. Retrieved from

[Link]

August 1, 2020

128

Tyng, C. M., Amin, H. U., Saad, M. N. M., & Malik, A. S. (2017). The
influences of

emotion on learning and memory. Frontiers in Psychology,8, 1454.

[Link]

Vygotsky, Lev. 1978. Mind in Society: The Development of Higher

Psychological

Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Online Rferences:

[Link]

[Link]

branch+model+of+emotional+intelligence+by+mayer+

%26+salovey+1997&rlz=1C1ASUC_enPH677PH677&oq=circul&aqs=chro
me.0.69i

59j0j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.4400j1j4&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
[Link]

MODULE 5

Inclusive Learning Environment

Module No. &

Title

Module 5- Inclusive Learning Environment

Module

Overview

Hello, dear learner! Welcome to this module on Inclusive Learning

Environment, a Professional Education subject. This module tries to

walk you through the various learning styles models that you can

employ in teaching the discipline. This module is self-instructional and

allows you to learn in your own space and pace. So, relax and enjoy!

It is clear then, that thinking has moved on beyond the narrow idea of

inclusion as a means of understanding and overcoming a deficit and it is

now widely accepted that it concerns issues of gender, ethnicity, class,

social conditions, health and human rights encompassing universal

involvement, access, participation and achievement (Ouane,2008)

To get most out of this module, here are some few reminders:

Take time in reading the lessons.

Take enough time to write down questions for explanation. You

may discuss these questions with your nearest neighboring

classmate or you can raise these questions during the virtual

conversation.

Complete all the given tasks in the Worksheet. This will be the

basis of your performance.

Answer all Activity. This will give you an idea how well you

understand the lessons.

Good luck and enjoy!

Module

Objectives/Outc

omes

Develop understanding on how to promote an inclusive and safe

learning environment to effectively facilitate learner-centered teaching

Lessons in the

Module

Lesson 5.1 Learning Styles

Lesson 5.2 Student with Diverse Abilities and Background

Lesson 5.3 Fair and Safe Learning Environment

Lesson 5.4 Learner Participation

Lesson 3: Misbehavior Management

Lesson 5.1

Module No.

and Title

5 INCLUSIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Lesson No.

and Title

5.1 Learning Styles

Learning

Outcomes

o concepts of Common learning styles theories

o apply strategies to become expert learners

o advocate the use of the Learning Styles Theories in the teaching-

learning process

o appreciation of how these theories can provide a framework for

understanding learners

Time Frame 3 hours

Introduction Inclusive education is about ensuring access to quality

education for all

students by effectively meeting their diverse needs in a way that is

responsive, accepting, respectful and supportive.

Students participate in the education program in a common learning

environment with support to diminish and remove barriers and obstacles

that may lead to exclusion. Inclusive education is carried out in

a common learning environment; that is, an educational setting where

students from different backgrounds and with different abilities learn

together in an inclusive environment.

Activity Self Check:

August 1, 2020

130

This questionnaire is designed to find out your preferred learning styles(s)

as an adult. Over the years, you have probably developed learning habits

that help you benefit more from some experiences than from others. You

may be unaware of this, and this questionnaire will help you pinpoint your

learning preferences and share them with the other Community

Facilitators.

This questionnaire will probably take you about 10 minutes to

complete. The accuracy of your results depends on how honest you are.

There are no rights or wrong answers. If you agree more than you

disagree with a statement, place a tick (u) in the box at the left of the

question. If you disagree more than you agree, leave the box blank. If you

find yourself wondering which situation to think of when answering a

question, just think about how you are when you are working with people.

Go with your first gut reaction instead of over-thinking your response.

As we move further with our lesson, let us have an activity for you

to be able to identify what kind of learning styles you may have by using

the Kolb’s Learning Style.

Kolb’s Learning Style Questionnaire 1 Agree Disagree

1. I have strong beliefs about what is right and

wrong, good and bad.

2. I often act without considering the possible

consequences.

3. I tend to solve problems using a step-by-step

approach.

4. I believe that formal procedures and policies

restrict people.

5. I have a reputation for saying what I think,

simply and directly

6. I often find that actions based on feelings are

as sound as those based on careful thought and

analysis.

7. I like the sort of work where I have time for

thorough preparation and implementation.

8. I regularly question people about their basic

assumptions

9. What matters most is whether something

works in practice.

10. I actively seek out new experiences.

August 1, 2020

131

11. When I hear about a new idea or approach, I

immediately start working out how to apply it

in practice.
12. I am keen on self discipline such as watching

my diet, taking regular exercise, sticking to a

fixed routine, etc.

13. I take pride in doing a thorough job.

14. I get on best with logical, analytical people and

less well with spontaneous, ‘irrational’ people

Kolb’s Learning Style Questionnaire 2

Agree Disagree

15. I take care over how I interpret data and avoid

jumping to conclusions.

16. I like to reach a decision carefully after

weighing up many alternatives.

17. I am attracted more to novel, unusual ideas

than to practical ones.

18. I do not like disorganized things and prefer to

fit things into a coherent pattern.

19. I accept and stick to laid down procedures and

policies so long as I regard them as an efficient

way of getting the job done.

20. I like to relate my actions to a general

principle, standard or belief.

21. In discussions, I like to get straight to the

point.

22. I tend to have distant, rather than formal

relationships with people at work.

23. I thrive on the challenge of tackling something

new and different.

24. I enjoy fun-loving, spontaneous people.

25. I pay careful attention to detail before coming

to a conclusion.

26. I find it difficult to produce ideas on impulse.

27. I believe in coming to the point immediately.

28. I am careful not to jump to conclusions too

quickly.

29. I prefer to have as many sources of

information as possible – the more information

August 1, 2020

132

to think over, the better.

30. Flippant, superficial people who do not take

things seriously enough usually irritate me.

31. I listen to other people’s points of view before

putting my own view forward.

32. I tend to be open about how I am feeling.

33. In discussions, I enjoy watching the plotting

and scheming of the other participants.

34. I prefer to respond to events in a spontaneous,

flexible way rather than plan things out in

advance.

35. I tend to be attracted to techniques such as

flow charts, contingency plans, etc.

36. It worries me if I have to rush work to meet a

tight deadline.

Kolb’s Learning Style Questionnaire 3 Agree Disagree

37. I tend to judge people’s ideas on their practical

merits.

38. Quiet, thoughtful people tend to make me feel

uneasy.

39. I often get irritated by people who want to rush

things

40. It is more important to enjoy the present

moment than to think about the past or future.

41. I think that decisions based on a careful

analysis of all the information are better than

those based on intuition.

42. I tend to be a perfectionist.

[Link] discussions, I usually produce lots of

spontaneous ideas

44. In meetings, I put forward practical, realistic

ideas

45. More often than not, rules are there to be

broken.

46. I prefer to stand back from a situation and

consider all the perspectives.

47. I can often see inconsistencies and weaknesses

August 1, 2020

133

in other people’s arguments.

48. On balance I talk more than I listen.

49. I can often see better, more practical ways to

get things done.

50. I think written reports should be short and to

the point.

51. I believe that rational, logical thinking should

win the day.

52 I tend to discuss specific things with people

rather than engaging in social discussions.

53. I like people who approach things realistically

rather than theoretically

54. In discussions, I get impatient with irrelevant

issues and digressions.

55. If I have a report to write, I tend to produce

lots of drafts before settling on the final

version.

56. I am keen to try things out to see if they work

in practice

Kolb’s Learning Style Questionnaire 4 Agree Disagree

57. I am keen to reach answers via a logical

approach.

58. I enjoy being the one that talks a lot.

59. In discussions, I often find I am a realist,

keeping people to the point and avoiding wild

speculations.

60. I like to ponder many alternatives before

making up my mind.

61. In discussions with people I often find I am the

most dispassionate and objective.

62. In discussions I am more likely to adopt a ‘low

profile’ than to take the lead and do most of

the talking.

63. I like to be able to relate current actions to the

longer-term bigger picture.

64. When things go wrong, I am happy to shrug it

off and ‘put it down to experience’.

August 1, 2020