1.

Circuits: Design, Wiring, and Passive

Components
Passive Electronic Components
 These are parts in a circuit that cannot control current using another
electrical signal.
 They only respond to the electricity given to them they don’t “think”
or amplify signals.
 Resistors
o They reduce or limit the flow of electric current, which creates
a voltage drop.
o Think of them as speed breakers for electricity, slowing down
current to protect parts.
 Capacitors
o They store electrical energy in an electric field between their
plates and release it when needed.
o They act like small rechargeable batteries used for filtering
noise or giving a quick power boost.
 Diodes
o They allow current to flow in only one direction and have a
painted line that shows the negative side.
o Helpful for preventing reverse current that might damage a
circuit.
 Transistors (Active Components)
o These are semiconductor devices used for switching,
amplification, and voltage regulation.
o They are like electronic switches that can also boost signals.
 Integrated Circuits (ICs)
o They contain many tiny components packed together in a
small chip and come in various sizes.
o ICs make it possible to build powerful devices like
microcontrollers, sensors, and processors.

Circuit Wiring Example – Pushbutton

  Connect one leg of the pushbutton to a digital pin (e.g., Pin 2) and to
a pull-down resistor (10K ohm) leading to ground. Connect the other
leg to 5V.
o This wiring ensures the pin always reads a stable value
instead of random noise.
 Logic – Open (Unpressed)
o When unpressed, the button connects to ground through the
resistor, so the input reads LOW.
o LOW means the microcontroller sees a “0”.
 Logic – Closed (Pressed)
o When pressed, the button connects to 5V, so the input reads
HIGH.
o HIGH means the microcontroller sees a “1”.
 Floating Pins
o If an input pin does not have a pull-up or pull-down resistor, it
becomes “floating” and randomly reads HIGH or LOW.
o Floating pins cause unstable behaviour, so resistors ensure
clean signals.

2. Actuators: Types and Interfacing

Basics of Actuators
 Actuators convert electrical energy into physical movement—linear,
rotary, or oscillating motion.
 They are the “moving parts” in robotics and automation.
 Actuators are chosen based on torque, speed, precision, range of
motion (like 180 degrees), and whether the movement is linear or
rotating.
 Choosing the wrong actuator can make a robot weak or unstable.

Types of Motors
 DC Gearless Motor
o Very high speed but low torque, used for light tasks like
powering propellers on small boats.
o Good when you want fast spinning but not heavy lifting.
  DC Geared Motor
o Lower speed but high torque, suitable for robots and robotic
arms.
o Gears increase strength, making it good for carrying loads.

 Brushless Motor
o Very high speed and low torque, commonly used in drones,
aerial robots, and RC boats.
o They are efficient, low-noise, and have a long lifespan.
 Stepper Motor
o Provides good torque and precise rotational steps at variable
speeds but requires special driver circuits.
o Perfect for CNC machines, 3D printers, and plotters.
 Servo Motor
o Offers good torque with limited movement (usually 180
degrees) and is controlled using PWM duty cycle.
o Used for controlled angle movement like steering wheels or
robotic joints.
 DC Linear Actuator
o Converts rotation of a DC motor into straight linear movement
using a lead screw.
o Used in lifting systems, adjustable beds, and sliding
mechanisms.
 Solenoid
o Electromechanical or pneumatic actuator with short
movement but very fast action.
o Often used in door locks, pin pushers, and valves.

Interfacing Actuators & Lights

 LED Resistor Calculation
o Formula: R = (Vs – VL) / I, where Vs = supply voltage and VL =
LED voltage.
o Without the resistor, the LED burns out due to excess current.
 Voltage Drops of LEDs
 o Red ~1.7V, Green ~2.2V, Blue ~4.5V.
o Different colours require different voltages because of
semiconductor material differences.
 Motor Driver Using NPN Transistor
o An NPN transistor can drive a motor with variable speed, but it
can't reverse direction.
o For direction control, H-bridge circuits like L298N are used.
 Relays
o Used to control high-current or AC devices safely.
o They act like electrically controlled switches.
o Pros of Relays: Can switch AC or DC, handle high voltage
and high current.
 Extra: Useful for appliances like pumps, lights, and
motors.
o Cons of Relays: They are bulky, slow, and need more power
than ICs supply.
 Extra: For fast switching circuits, they are not ideal.
 Optoisolators
o A cheaper and faster isolation method compared to relays,
works well for AC power systems.
o They protect microcontrollers by isolating high-voltage
circuits.

3. Prototyping Board (Arduino) Interfacing

Power & Memory
 Vin Pin
o Used to supply external power (like a 9–12V adapter).
o Arduino’s regulator converts it into a safe voltage.
 5V & 3.3V Pins
o Provide regulated voltage outputs for sensors and modules.
o Do not draw high current from these pins to avoid damaging
the board.
  Memory of ATmega328
o Contains 32KB Flash, 2KB SRAM, and 1KB EEPROM.
o Flash stores your code, SRAM handles variables, EEPROM
holds permanent data.

Digital & Analog I/O

 Digital I/O Pins 0–13
o Used for digitalRead and digitalWrite.
o Pins 0 and 1 also serve as serial RX/TX.
 PWM Pins
o Used for dimming LEDs and controlling motor speed.
 Analog Input Pins A0–A5
o Measure analog signals (0–5V).
o Used for sensors like temperature, light, and potentiometers.
 AREF Pin
o Sets the reference voltage for analog inputs.
o Useful when using sensors with a smaller voltage range.

Communication Interfaces
 UART Communication
o Pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX) used for serial communication.
o Also used for uploading code to Arduino.
 SPI Interface Pins
o Used for fast communication with modules like SD cards and
displays.
 I2C (TWI) Interface
o Supports multiple devices on the same two wires.

4. Software Libraries and Shields

Purpose of Libraries
 They add extra features to Arduino for interacting with hardware or
processing data.
  Saves time because you don’t need to write everything from
scratch.
 Install through Library Manager (Sketch > Include Library > Manage
Libraries).
 Always update libraries for bug fixes.

Official Arduino Libraries

 Robotics
o Servo.h: Used for controlling servo motors.
 Extra: Allows easy angle control like [Link](90).
o Stepper.h: Used for controlling stepper motors (unipolar or
bipolar).
 Extra: Helps move motors step-by-step accurately.
 Communication
o SPI.h: Enables serial peripheral interface communication.
 Extra: Much faster than I2C.
o Wire.h (I2C): Used for I2C communication.
 Extra: Simple wiring with only two lines.
 Connectivity
o Ethernet.h: For connecting Arduino to the internet via
Ethernet shield.
 Extra: Stable and fast compared to WiFi.
o GSM.h: Used for GSM/GPRS communication with GSM shields.
 Extra: Can send SMS or connect to mobile networks.
o WiFi.h: For using WiFi shields to connect wirelessly.
 Extra: Lets Arduino host a webpage.
o ArduinoBLE.h: Provides Bluetooth Low Energy features.
 Extra: Useful for mobile-controlled projects.
 Audio
o Audio.h: Used for playing .wav files (only on Arduino Due).
 Extra: Enables simple sound effects.