1.

MCU Architecture & GPIO

Microcontroller (8051) Overview
 The 8051 is an 8-bit microcontroller used in many embedded
systems.
 It processes data 8 bits at a time, making it suitable for basic control
tasks.
 It works like a small “System on Chip” (SoC) with CPU, RAM, ROM,
I/O ports, and timers integrated on one chip.
o Note: Because everything is inside one chip, it reduces size
and cost.
 Unlike a microprocessor, the 8051 does not need external RAM or
I/O chips.
o Benefit: This makes it easier to design small, low-power
devices.

GPIO (General Purpose Input/Output)

 The 8051 has four 8-bit ports: P0, P1, P2, P3 (total 32 pins).
 Each port pin can act as input or output depending on the program.
 Port 1 (Pins 1–8)
o Only used for simple input/output tasks.
o It has no alternate or special functions.
 Port 0 (Pins 32–39)
o Works as a general I/O port.
o Also works as Address/Data bus (AD0–AD7) when using
external memory.
o This means the same pins carry both address and data
signals.
 Port 2 (Pins 21–28)
o Works as general I/O.
o Also sends high-byte address signals (A8–A15) for external
memory access.
o So, it helps the microcontroller reach higher memory
addresses.
 Port 3 (Pins 10–17)
 o A multifunctional port providing serial, interrupt, and timer
functions.
o These special features make P3 very important.
o Pin Functions:
 P3.0 – RXD (Serial Receive)
 P3.1 – TXD (Serial Transmit)
 P3.2 – INT0 (External Interrupt 0)
 P3.3 – INT1 (External Interrupt 1)
 P3.4 – T0 (Timer 0 input)
 P3.5 – T1 (Timer 1 input)
 P3.6 – WR (Write signal for external memory)
 P3.7 – RD (Read signal for external memory)

ADC & DAC

 Embedded systems must convert analog signals (temperature, light,
pressure) into digital form.
 ADC (Analog to Digital Converter)
o Converts analog voltage from sensors into digital values.
o MCU can then process the digital values easily.
 DAC (Digital to Analog Converter)
o Converts MCU’s digital output into analog voltage.
o Used to control motors, speakers, LEDs, etc.

2. Timers, Counters, and Watchdog Timer (WDT)

Timers/Counters
 The 8051 has two 16-bit timers: Timer 0 and Timer 1.
 Each timer can count from 0000H to FFFFH.
 They can work as:
o Timers – count internal clock cycles (measure time).
o Counters – count external pulses (measure events).
 TMOD Register
 o Controls the mode of each timer.
o Selects Timer/Counter, gate control, and mode (0,1,2,3).
 TCON Register
o Controls start/stop for timers (TR0, TR1).
o Shows overflow flags (TF0, TF1) when the timer completes
counting.

Timer Modes
 Mode 0: 13-bit timer (old and rarely used).
 Mode 1: 16-bit timer; counts full range; most used.
 Mode 2: 8-bit auto-reload; very useful for generating baud rates.
 Mode 3: Splits Timer 0 into two separate 8-bit timers.

Watchdog Timer (WDT)

 Used to reset the system if software hangs or crashes.
 It is a free-running timer that must be reset regularly by the
program.
 If the program fails to reset it, the WDT times out and resets the
MCU.
o Benefit: This prevents the system from getting stuck
permanently.

PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)

 8051 does not have a built-in PWM unit.
 But PWM can be created using timers and interrupts.
 By adjusting the ON time and OFF time of a square wave, we can
control motor speed, LED brightness, etc.

3. Memory Organization
Architecture Types
 Harvard Architecture
o Program memory (ROM) and Data memory (RAM) are
separate.
o Allows CPU to read instructions and data simultaneously.
o 8051 uses this architecture.
  Von-Neumann Architecture
o Only one memory for both instructions and data.
o Simpler but slower because CPU accesses one at a time.

8051 Memory Map

 Internal ROM
o 4 KB program memory stored inside the chip.
 Internal RAM
o 128 bytes (or 256 bytes for 8052).
o Used for variables, registers, and temporary storage.
 Register Banks (00H–1FH)
o Contains four banks of registers (R0–R7).
o Only one bank is active at a time.
 Bit-Addressable RAM (20H–2FH)
o 16 bytes where each bit has its own address.
o Makes it easy to handle flags and control bits.
 Scratchpad RAM (30H–7FH)
o General-purpose area for storing data and variables.
 SFRs (80H–FFH)
o Contains all special registers like Port registers, Timer
registers, Interrupt registers, etc.

4. Serial Communication
UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter)
 A built-in serial communication module in 8051.
 Uses RXD (P3.0) and TXD (P3.1) for receiving and sending data.
 Used for debugging, programming, and communicating with PCs.
 Controlled using SCON register.

I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit)

 A two-wire communication protocol for connecting sensors.
 Designed for low-speed data transfer.
  Wires:
o SDA – Data line
o SCL – Clock line
 Key Points:
o Communication begins with a Start condition.
o Every device has a 7-bit address.
o Data is sent in 8-bit format with ACK/NACK.
o Communication ends with a Stop condition.

5. Operating System Basics & RTOS

Processes and Tasks
 Co-operating Processes
o These tasks need each other’s data to work.
o Example: One task writes sensor data; another processes it.
 Competing Processes
o These tasks do not share data but fight for CPU time or
resources.

Real-Time Systems
 Output must be correct and delivered within a deadline.
 Hard Real-Time
o Missing a deadline is dangerous.
o Example: Airbag deployment.
 Soft Real-Time
o Small delays are acceptable.
o Example: Video streaming.

Inter-Process Communication (IPC)

 Shared Memory
o Many tasks access the same data area.
o Faster but needs protection.
 Pipes
 o One-way or two-way communication through a shared buffer.
 Message Queue
o FIFO system where tasks post messages for others.
 Mailbox
o Similar but usually stores one message at a time.
 Signaling
o Sends notifications without data.
 RPC (Remote Procedure Call)
o A process calls a function that runs in another process or
device.

6. Task Synchronization
Issues
 Race Condition
o Two tasks access the same data at the same time, causing
errors.
 Deadlock
o Two tasks wait forever because each needs a resource the
other holds.
 Priority Inversion
o A high-priority task waits for a low-priority task unnecessarily.

Techniques
 Spin Lock
o A process repeatedly checks a condition until the resource is
free.
 Binary Semaphore / Mutex
o Only one task can access protected data at a time.
 Counting Semaphore
o Allows a limited number of tasks to access a resource pool.

7. Choosing an RTOS
Functional Requirements
 Check if the RTOS supports the specific processor.
 Ensure the RTOS can meet real-time deadlines.
 Verify available services like IPC, timers, networking, etc.
 Check if you can remove unused components to save memory.

Non-Functional Requirements
 Cost of licensing vs development time.
 Availability of good tools and debuggers.
 Quality of customer support and documentation.