Chemical Reactions

4
and Stoichiometry
 Chemical Quantities
and Aqueous Reactions

4.1 Chemistry of Cuisine

4.2 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
4.3 Solutions and Solubility
4.4 Precipitation Reactions
4.5 Acid-Base Reactions
4.6 Oxidation Reduction Reactions
4.7 Reaction Stoichiometry: How Much is Produced?
4.8 Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield and Percent Yield
4.9 Solution Concentration and Solution Stoichiometry
 4.1 Chemistry of Cuisine
NaHCO3 + HKC5H4O6

Cadaverine

Putriscine
 4.2 Chemical Reactions and Equations
• Chemical reaction: Conversion of one or more
substances into one or more new substances
→ Represent with a balanced chemical equation

2 Mg (s) + O2 (g) 2 MgO (s)

2 atoms Mg + 1 molecule O2 yields 2 formula units MgO

2 moles Mg + 1 mole O2 yields 2 moles MgO
48.6 grams Mg + 32.0 grams O2 yields 80.6 g MgO

2 grams Mg + 1 gram O2 makes 2 g MgO

 Chemical Equations and Stoichiometry

• Stoichiometry – Quantitative relationships involving:

→ atomic and formula masses
→ chemical formulas
→ chemical equations

2 Mg + O2 2 MgO

• Mole ratios (stoichiometric factors) are extremely useful

conversion factors
→ How much “X” is consumed
→ How much “Y” is produced
 Getting Comfortable with Mole Ratios

• For every mole of Al consumed, ___ moles of H2 are

produced.

• 12 moles of HCl will react with ___ moles of Al.

• ___ moles of AlCl3 are produced

from 2 moles of HCl.
 Using Mole Ratios in Calculations

1. Write balanced chemical equation

2. Convert quantities of known substances into moles
3. Use coefficients in balanced equation to calculate
the number of moles of the sought quantity
4. Convert moles of sought quantity into desired units
 Practice Problem
Octane is one of the primary components of
gasoline. Its combustion reaction is shown here:
2 C8H18 (l) + 25 O2 (g) 16 CO2 (g) + 18 H2O (g)
Example: Estimate the mass of CO2 produced in 2007 by
the combustion of 3.5 x 1015 g gasoline

Given: 3.4 x 1015 g C8H18

Find: g CO2
Conceptual g C8H18 mol C8H18 mol CO2 g CO2
Plan:

Relationships: 1 mol C8H18 = 114.22g, 1 mol CO2 = 44.01g, 2 mol C8H18:16 mol CO2

Solution:

Check: because 8x moles of CO as C H , but the molar mass of C H

2 8 18 8 18
is 3x CO2, the number makes sense
 Aqueous Solutions

• Human’s are about 70% water:

Virtually all of the biochemical processes
in our bodies take place in water.
Most biological processes on
earth take place in water.

• Many important industrial processes take place in aqueous

environments.
• Push for “green chemistry” is revitalizing interest in water
as a “green solvent”
 Electrolytic Aqueous Solutions
• Electrolyte – a solute which produces an aqueous
solution that conducts electricity.
 Electrolytic Aqueous Solutions
• Electrolytes dissociate into their cations (+) and anions (–)
in solution
→ Movement of cations to negative electrode and anions
to positive electrode establishes a current
 Ions are attracted to water molecules

water molecules solvate ions

When it enters the solution, the

ion is surrounded by water
molecules, insulating it from other
ions
The result is a solution with free
moving charged particles able to
conduct electricity
 Limiting Reagents
• Rare to have the correct stoichiometric proportions for a
reaction
• Usually, one reagent is limiting and the other(s) are in
excess
→ Limiting reagent determines how much product can
be formed from a given reaction.

2NO + O2 2NO2
-Limiting Reagents
-Reaction Yields
-Solutions (molarity of solutions, dilutions)

-Reactions in Solutions
a. Precipitation Reactions
b. Acid/Base Reactions
c. Gas Evolving Reactions
d. Redox Reactions
 Limiting and Excess Reactants in the
Combustion of Methane
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)
• If we have five molecules of CH4 and eight molecules of
O2, which is the limiting reactant? since less CO2
can be made
from the O2 than
the CH4, so the
O2 is the
limiting
reactant
Practice — How many moles of Si3N4 can be made from
1.20 moles of Si and 1.00 moles of N2 in the reaction
3 Si + 2 N2 → Si3N4?
Given: 1.20 mol Si, 1.00 mol N2
Find: mol Si3N4
Conceptual mol Si mol Si3N4 Pick least
Plan: Limiting
amount
reactant and
theoretical
mol N2 mol Si3N4
yield
Relationships:
2 mol N2 : 1 Si3N4; 3 mol Si : 1 Si3N4
Solution: Limiting
reactant
Theoretical
yield
 Reaction Yields
• Theoretical yield - the amount of product that would
result if all the limiting reagent reacted

• Actual Yield - the amount of product actually obtained

from a reaction
→ You cannot calculate this!

• Percent Yield - actual yield as a percentage of the

theoretical yield

Actual Yield
% Yield = x 100
Theoretical Yield
Practice — How many grams of N2(g) can be made
from 9.05 g of NH3 reacting with 45.2 g of CuO?
2 NH3(g) + 3 CuO(s) → N2(g) + 3 Cu(s) + 3 H2O(l)
If 4.61 g of N2 are made, what is the percent yield?
Practice — How many grams of N2(g) can be made from 9.05 g of NH3 reacting with
45.2 g of CuO? 2 NH3(g) + 3 CuO(s) → N2(g) + 3 Cu(s) + 3 H2O(l)
If 4.61 g of N2 are made, what is the percent yield?

Given: 9.05 g NH3, 45.2 g CuO

Find: g N2
Conceptual g NH mol NH3 mol N2
3
Plan:
Choose
smallest g N2
g CuO mol CuO mol N2

Relationships: 1 mol NH3 = 17.03g, 1 mol CuO = 79.55g, 1 mol N2 = 28.02 g

2 mol NH3 : 1 mol N2, 3 mol CuO : 1 mol N2
Practice — How many grams of N2(g) can be made from 9.05 g of NH3 reacting with
45.2 g of CuO? 2 NH3(g) + 3 CuO(s) → N2(g) + 3 Cu(s) + 3 H2O(l)
If 4.61 g of N2 are made, what is the percent yield?

Solution:

Theoretical
yield

Check: because the percent yield is less than 100, the

answer makes sense
 Solution Concentration
• Solutions can have varying concentrations:

• Quantify solution concentrations with molarity (M)

moles of solute
M = molarity =
liters of solution
 Solution Preparation
• 1 L of 1 M NaCl from a solid:
 4.4 Precipitation Reactions
• Not all ionic compounds are electrolytes
→ Many ionic compounds are insoluble in water

• No easy way to predict solubility

→ Use a set of “rules”
Example: Find the molarity of a solution that has 25.5 g
KBr dissolved in 1.75 L of solution

Given: 25.5 g KBr, 1.75 L solution

Find: molarity, M
Conceptual
g KBr mol KBr
Plan: M
L sol’n
Relationships: 1 mol KBr = 119.00 g, M = moles/L
Solution:

Check: because most solutions are between 0 and 18 M, the answer

makes sense
 Solution Dilution

Dilution
Add Solvent

Moles of solute Moles of solute

before dilution (i) = after dilution (f)
MiVi = M fV f
 Solution Preparation
• 1 L of 1 M NaCl from a stock solution:
Practice – How would you prepare 200.0 mL of 0.25 M
NaCl solution from a 2.0 M solution?
Given: M1 = 2.0 M, M2 = 0.25 M, V2 = 200.0 mL
Find: V1, L
Conceptual
Plan: M1 , M 2 , V 2 V1

Relationships: M1V1 = M2V2

Solution:

Dilute 25 mL of 2.0 M solution up to 200.0 mL

Check: because the solution is diluted by a factor of 8, the volume
should increase by a factor of 8, and it does
 Practice – What is the concentration of a
solution prepared by diluting 45.0 mL of 8.25
M HNO3 to 135.0 mL?
Practice – What is the concentration of a solution prepared by
diluting 45.0 mL of 8.25 M HNO3 to 135.0 mL?
Given: V1 = 45.0 mL, M1 = 8.25 M, V2 = 135.0 mL
Find: M2, L
Conceptual
Plan: V1, M1, V2 M2

Relationships: M1V1 = M2V2

Solution:

Check: because the solution is diluted by a factor of 3, the molarity

should decrease by a factor of 3, and it does
 Precipitation Reactions
• Soluble ions can combine to form an insoluble compound.
Precipitation results.
Cd(NO3)2 (aq) + Na2S (aq) CdS (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)
 Representing Precipitation Reactions
Cd(NO3)2 (aq) + Na2S (aq) CdS (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)
molecular equation

Cd2+(aq) + 2NO3‾(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + S2‾(aq)

CdS(s) + 2Na+(aq) + 2NO3‾(aq)
complete ionic equation

Cd2+(aq) + S2‾(aq) CdS(s)

net ionic equation

Warning: Atoms and charges must balance in all equations

 Typical Solubility Problem
Which of the following two solutions, when mixed,
will likely result in a precipitate? Write a net ionic
equation for the precipitation reaction.

1. NaCl(aq) + MgCl2(aq)
2. NH4Cl(aq) + NaBr(aq)
3. AgNO3(aq) + NaNO3(aq)
4. MgCl2(aq) + NaOH(aq)
5. Pb(NO3)2(aq) + AgC2H3O2(aq)
Periodic Table
 4.5 Acid Base Reactions
• Acids - yield H+ (H3O+) when dissolved in water
(Arrhenius theory)

→ Sour taste
→ Cause color change in plant dyes
→ React with certain metals to produce H2 gas
→ React with carbonates to produce CO2 gas
→ Acidic aqueous solutions conduct electricity
 Acid Base Reactions: Bases
• Bases - yield OH‾ ions when dissolved in water
(Arrhenius theory)

→ Bitter taste
→ Slippery feel (soaps)
→ Cause color change in plant dyes
→ React with acids to produce salts
→ Basic aqueous solutions conduct electricity
Common Acids/Bases to Know
 Strong vs. Weak
• Strong acids/bases – ionize completely in solution

HCl(aq) + H2O(l)  H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

NaOH(aq)  Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

• Weak acids/bases – only partially ionize in solution

CH3CO2H(aq) + H2O(l) ←
→ H3O+(aq) + CH3CO2-(aq)
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ←
→ OH -(aq) + NH +(aq)
4
 Neutralization Reactions

acid + base salt + (water )

Example: HCl and NaOH

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

H+(aq) + Cl‾(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH‾(aq) Na+(aq) + Cl‾(aq) + H2O(aq)

H+(aq) + OH‾(aq) H2O(l)

Neutralization occurs when:

# moles of H+ = # moles of OH-
 Watch Out!

• Polyprotic acids have more than one acidic H+

→ e.g. H2SO4, H3PO4

• Some bases contain more than one OH- group

→ e.g. Mg(OH)2, Ca(OH)2

• Stoichiometry of neutralization may not be 1:1

H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

 Acid-Base Titrations
• Titration - a solution of known concentration is added to
a solution of unknown concentration
→ Titration ends when stoichiometric equivalence has
been reached (equivalence point)
 Acid-Base Indicators
• Litmus – water soluble plant dyes which change color
with pH:

basic acidic

• Phenolphthalein – turns pink in basic solutions:

 Acid-Base Titrations
• Indicators are added to unknown solution
→ Colour change signals the end of the titration
 Practice − What is the concentration of NaOH
solution that requires 27.5 mL to titrate 50.0 mL of
0.1015 M H2SO4?

H2SO4 + 2 NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2 H2O

50.0 mL 27.5 mL
0.1015 M ?M
 Practice — What is the concentration of NaOH solution that
requires 27.5 mL to titrate 50.0 mL of 0.1015 M H2SO4?
2 NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2 H2O(aq)
Given: 50.0 mLLof
0.0500 of0.1015
0.1015M
MHH22SO
SO44,,27.5
0.0275
mLLNaOH
NaOH
Find: M NaOH
Conceptual L H SO mol H2SO4 mol NaOH
2 4
Plan:
M NaOH
L NaOH

Relationships: 1 mL= 0.001 L, 1 L H2SO4 = 0.1015 mol, 2 mol NaOH : 1 mol H2SO4
Solution:

the units are correct, the number makes because the volume of NaOH is
Check:
about ½ the H2SO4, but the stoichiometry says you need twice the moles
of NaOH as H2SO4
Some Acid-Base Reactions Produce Gas
1. Gas can be formed directly:
K2S(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + H2S(g)
2. Gas can form from product decomposition:
CH3CO2H(aq) + NaHCO3(aq) → H2CO3(aq) + NaCH3CO2(aq)
→ H2O(l) + CO2(g) + NaCH3CO2(aq)
Compounds that Undergo
Gas-Evolving Reactions
 4.6 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
• Oxidation-reductions reactions (REDOX reactions) -
involve the transfer of electrons between reacting species.

oxidation: loss of electrons Na  Na+ + e–

reduction: gain of electrons Cl2 + 2e–  2Cl–

Oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously:

2Na + Cl2 2NaCl

 L oss of
E lectrons is
O xidation
G ain of
E lectrons is
R eduction

Mnemonic: learning technique that helps with retention of

information  short term to long term memory…
O xidation
I s
L oss of e-

R eduction
I s
G ain of e-
 Oxidation State
• Oxidation State (O.S.) - the charge an atom would have
in a compound/ion if electrons were completely
transferred from one atom to another
→ Somewhat fictitious
→ Used to keep track of electrons
→ Change in oxidation state indicates a REDOX reaction

• Assign oxidation states by following a set of rules…

 Oxidation State Rules
1. Free elements have an oxidation state of zero:
Na, Be, K, Pb, H2, O2, P4 O.S. = 0

2. In monoatomic ions, oxidation state equals ion charge:

Li+, O.S. = +1; Fe3+, O.S. = +3

3. The sum of the oxidation numbers must equal the charge

on that molecule or ion:
MnO4- : [Link] + 4 x O.S.O = -1
NaCl: [Link] + [Link] = 0
 Oxidation State Rules
4. When part of a compound, metals have positive
oxidation states
→ Group 1 metals are always +1
→ Group 2 metals are always +2
5. When part of a compound, nonmetals are assigned
oxidation states according to the table below:
Nonmetal Oxidation State
F -1
H +1
O -2 hierarchy
Group 7A -1
Group 6A -2
Group 5A -3
 Practice Problem
What are the oxidation states of K, Cr and O in
K2Cr2O7?
 Example: Determine the oxidation states of all
the atoms in a propanoate ion, C3H5O2–
• There are no free elements or free ions in propanoate,
so the first rule that applies is Rule 3b
(C3) + (H5) + (O2) = −1
• Because all the atoms are nonmetals, the next rule we
use is Rule 5, following the elements in order:
→ H = +1
→ O = −2
(C3) + 5(+1) + 2(−2) = −1
(C3) = −2 Note: unlike charges,
oxidation states can be
C = −⅔
fractions!
 Practice – Assign an oxidation state
to each element in the following
• Br2 Br = 0, (Rule 1)

• K+ K = +1, (Rule 2)

• LiF Li = +1, (Rule 4a) & F = −1, (Rule 5)

• CO2 O = −2, (Rule 5) & C = +4, (Rule 3a)

• SO42− O = −2, (Rule 5) & S = +6, (Rule 3b)

• Na2O2 Na = +1, (Rule 4a) & O = −1 , (Rule 3a)

If the oxidation number of
one or more elements
changes during a reaction,
the reaction must be a
REDOX reaction
 Oxidation and Reduction
Another Definition

• Oxidation occurs when an atom’s oxidation state

increases during a reaction
• Reduction occurs when an atom’s oxidation state
decreases during a reaction

CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O

−4 +1 0 +4 –2 +1 −2
oxidation
reduction
 Oxidation–Reduction
• Oxidation and reduction must occur simultaneously
→ if an atom loses electrons another atom must take them
• The reactant that reduces an element in another reactant
is called the reducing agent
→ the reducing agent contains the element that is oxidized
• The reactant that oxidizes an element in another reactant
is called the oxidizing agent
→ the oxidizing agent contains the element that is reduced

2 Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2 Na+Cl–(s)

Na is oxidized, Cl is reduced
Na is the reducing agent, Cl2 is the oxidizing agent
 Example: Assign oxidation states,
determine the element oxidized and reduced,
and determine the oxidizing agent and
reducing agent in the following reactions:
Reducing Oxidizing
agent agent

Fe + MnO4− + 4H+ → Fe3+ + MnO2 + 2H2O

0 +7 −2 +1 +3 +4 −2 +1 −2

Reduction
Oxidation
Types of Redox Reactions

0 0 +1 -1
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl

A+B C
Combination Reaction

+3 -1 0 0
2NI3 2N2 + 3I2
C A+B
Decomposition Reaction
Types of Redox Reactions
0 0 +2 -2
2Mg + O2 2MgO

A + O2 B
Combustion Reaction

+3 0 0 +3
Fe2O3 + 2Al Fe + Al2O3

AB + C A + BC
Displacement Reaction
 Types of Redox Reactions
• Disproportionation Reaction: Substance is both oxidized
and reduced
→ e.g. decomposition of H2O2
Oxygen is both oxidized and reduced:
-1 -2 0
2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
 Reaction Classification
Identify whether the following reaction as
either precipitation, acid-base or redox. If you
select redox, specify the type. (Note: states of
matter have been deliberately omitted)

Ca + F2 CaF2

NH3 + HBr NH4Br

Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2

Ca(NO3)2 + K2CO3 CaCO3 + 2KNO3

 Oxidizing/Reducing Agents
• Oxidation and reduction reactions happen together
→ Electrons flow one species to another

Ca + F2 CaF2

• Two perspectives:
→ Ca is oxidized (lost electrons)
→ F2 is an oxidizing agent (causes Ca to be oxidized)

• Oxidizing agent – causes oxidation of another species

• Reducing agent – causes reduction of another species
 Learning Objectives
• Determine the limiting reactant in a reaction and use this
to calculate amounts of reactants and/or products
required/consumed/produced in a reaction
• Perform calculations involving percent yield, theoretical
yield and actual yield for reactions
• Determine how to prepare a solutions of a given
concentration from either a solid or a stock solution
• Distinguish between electrolytic and non-electrolytic
solutions
• Predict whether a precipitation reaction will occur given
two solutions
 Learning Objectives
• Identify/recognize the common acids and bases
• Use titration data to solve for acid base concentrations or
vice versa
• Determine the oxidation state of an free atoms/ions, as
well as atoms in polyatomic ion and compounds
• Identify reducing and oxidizing agents in redox reactions
• Classify reactions as acid-base, precipitation, redox. In the
case of the latter, identify the type of redox reaction
• Represent aqueous reactions using balanced molecular,
complete ionic and net ionic equations