G1.

Resources and Development

Concepts:

1. Meaning of resources

2. Interdependence of nature, humans and technology

3. Resources are not free gifts of the nature

4. Classification of resources

5. Development of resources

i. Problems due to indiscriminate use of resources

ii. Sustainable development of resources

- Rio de Janeiro summit, Agenda 21

6. Importance of resource planning in India

7. Stages involved in resource planning

8. Resources can contribute to development only when they are accompanied by appropriate technological

development and institutional changes.

9. Conservation of resources

10. Land resource

a. Importance of land

b. Relief features in India

c. Land utilisation in general and in particular in India

d. Land degradation

e. Land conservation measures

11. Soil as resource

a. Importance of soil

b. Soil profile

c. Factors of soil formation

d. Classification of soils

e. Soil erosion

f. Soil conservation measures

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Notes

1. Meaning of resources:
Everything available in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs, provided, it is technologically accessible,

economically feasible and culturally acceptable can be termed as ‘Resource’.

2. Interdependence of nature, humans and technology:

Transformation of environmental resources is a continuous process.

Using technology, human beings interact with nature.

They create institutions to organize and accelerate economic development.

Together, nature, technology, and institutions interact and develop resources, that drive human progress.

3. Resources are not free gifts of the nature:

Resources are not free gifts of nature.

They are created through human activities.

Humans themselves are part of resources because they provide knowledge, skill, and labor.

Material in the environment becomes a resource only when transformed and used by humans.

Thus, resources are a function of nature + human effort.

4. Classification of resources:

a. On the Basis of Origin

• Biotic → Living resources (humans, flora, fauna, fisheries, livestock).

• Abiotic → Non-living resources (rocks, metals).

b. On the Basis of Exhaustibility

• Renewable → Can be replenished (solar, wind, water, forests, wildlife).

Non-Renewable → Formed over long periods of time; exhaustible (minerals, fossil fuels). Metals → recyclable.

Fossil fuels → non-recyclable.

c. On the Basis of Ownership

• Individual → Privately owned (land, houses, plantations, wells).

• Community → Accessible to all (village commons, parks, playgrounds).

• National → Belong to the nation (minerals, forests, wildlife, territorial waters up to 12 nautical miles).

• International → Beyond national jurisdiction; regulated by international institutions (open ocean resources beyond
200 nautical miles).

d. On the Basis of Status of Development

• Potential → Present but not yet utilized (wind/solar in Rajasthan & Gujarat).
• Developed → Surveyed, quality & quantity known, feasible for use.

e. Stock and Reserves

• Stock → Materials with potential but lacking technology to use (e.g., hydrogen as energy source).

Reserves → Part of stock; usable with existing technology but not yet fully exploited (e.g., river water for hydro power,
forests). To meet current human needs (food, energy, housing, industry).

To ensure future generations also have access to these resources.

To promote economic growth while protecting ecosystems.

5. Development of resources:

Development of resources means using resources in a planned and sustainable way to meet present needs without
compromising future generations. It balances economic growth with environmental conservation.

It is the process of using, managing and conserving resources in a way that ensures long term availability and environmental
balance.

Purpose:

I. Problems due to indiscriminate use of resources:

The following problems may arise if resources are not used discriminately. It may lead to –

- depletion of resources.

- accumulation of resources in few hands which in turn, divided the society into the rich and poor.

- global ecological crises such as, global warming, ozone layer depletion, environmental pollution and land degradation.

II. Sustainable development of resources:

Sustainable development: Sustainable economic development means ‘development should take place without damaging the
environment, and development in the present should not compromise with the needs of the future generations.

The Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992:

• Held in June 1992 at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

• Attended by over 100 heads of states.

• Purpose: Address global environmental protection and socioeconomic development.

• Leaders signed the Declaration on Global Climatic Change and Biological Diversity.

• The Rio Convention endorsed Forest Principles.

• Adopted Agenda 21 → a global action plan for achieving Sustainable Development in the 21st century.

Agenda 21:

• Signed by world leaders in 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
• Aim: to achieve global sustainable development.

• Focus: Combat environmental damage, poverty, and disease.

• How to achieve: Promote global cooperation based on common interests, mutual needs, and shared responsibilities.

• Major objective: Every local government should prepare its own local Agenda 21.

6. Importance of resource planning in India

Planning helps in the judicious use of resources.

Importance in India:

India – geographically diverse.

All the places do not have all the resources.

There are some places where some type of resources are available whereas in other places they are deficit.

Regional variations:

• Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh → Rich in minerals and coal.

• Arunachal Pradesh → Abundant water resources but poor infrastructure.

• Rajasthan → Rich in solar and wind energy but lacks water.

• Ladakh → Rich cultural heritage but deficient in water, infrastructure, and minerals.

Need:

For uniform and equitable development of all the regions in the country, resource planning is important.

Balanced resource planning at national, state, regional, and local levels helps to address disparities.

7. Stages involved in resource planning

Resource Planning Process:

i. Identification & Inventory of Resources

It involves surveying, mapping, and estimating resources (both qualitative and quantitative).

ii. Planning Structure

Developing a framework with suitable technology, skilled manpower, and institutional setup to implement resource
development plans.

iii. Integration with National Plans

Aligning resource development strategies with overall national development goals.

8. Resources can contribute to development only when they are accompanied by appropriate technological development
and institutional changes. Explain.
- Availability of resources is necessary for regional development.

- Resources alone are not sufficient. Without proper technology and institutions, development may be hindered.

- Some regions in India are resource-rich but economically backward.

- Other regions with a poor resource base are economically developed.

- Development depends on the effective use of resources with technology and institutions, not just on their presence.

9. Conservation of Resources:

• Resources are important for all developmental activities.

• Irrational consumption and over-utilisation can cause socio-economic and environmental problems.

• Resource conservation at multiple levels is essential to overcome these problems.

Gandhiji’s view on conservation of resources: “There is enough for everybody’s need and not for anybody’s greed.”

Greed, selfishness, and exploitative modern technology are the root causes of resource depletion.

He opposed mass production and advocated production by the masses.

10. Land Resource

I. General land utilisation:

The five types of land utilisation:

• Forests Land covered with forest vegetation.

• Used for timber, wildlife habitat, and ecological balance.

• Land not available for cultivation Barren and waste land → Land unsuitable for farming due to poor soil or harsh
conditions.

• Non-agricultural uses → Land used for buildings, roads, factories, etc.

• Other uncultivated land (excluding fallow land) Permanent pastures & grazing land → Used for feeding livestock.

• Land under tree crops/groves → Trees not counted in net sown area (e.g., orchards).

• Culturable waste land → Left uncultivated for more than 5 years but can be brought under cultivation.

• Fallow lands Current fallow → Land left uncultivated for one agricultural year or less.

• Other than current fallow → Land left uncultivated for 1–5 years.

•
• Net sown area Land actually cultivated during a year.

• If the same land is sown more than once, the total is called gross cropped area.

II. Land Degradation in India:

• Land is vital. 95% of basic needs (food, shelter, clothing) come from land.

• Human activities accelerate degradation alongside natural forces.

Major causes of land degradation: Deforestation → Especially due to mining in Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh,
Odisha.

Overgrazing → Common in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra.

Over-irrigation → In Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh → causes waterlogging, salinity, and alkalinity.

Mining & quarrying → Abandoned sites leave scars and over-burden; dust from limestone, calcite, soapstone industries
reduces water infiltration.

Industrial effluents → Waste contributes to land and water pollution.

Conclusion: Land degradation results from unsustainable human practices like mining, overgrazing, deforestation, and
industrial pollution.

III. Solutions to Land Degradation:

• Afforestation → Planting more trees to restore ecological balance.

• Proper management of grazing → Prevents overgrazing and protects soil cover.

• Arid areas: Planting shelter belts of trees.

• Controlling overgrazing.

• Stabilising sand dunes with thorny bushes.

• Waste land management → Bringing unused land under productive use.

• Mining areas → Control mining activities and rehabilitate abandoned sites.

• Industrial & suburban areas: Proper treatment and disposal of industrial effluents and wastes.

• Prevents land and water pollution.

•
11. Soil as resource

i. Soil: A Vital Renewable Resource:

• Soil is the most important renewable natural resource.

• It serves as the medium for plant growth.

• Supports a wide variety of living organisms on Earth.

• Soil is a living system, not inert matter.

• It takes millions of years to form just a few centimeters in depth.

Why is soil considered as a living system?

Soil is described as a living system because:

• It supports plant growth and provides the medium for agriculture.

• It sustains a wide variety of living organisms (microbes, insects, worms, etc.) that interact within it.

• Soil is not inert; it undergoes continuous natural processes like nutrient cycling, decomposition, and organic matter
formation.

• Its formation is extremely slow, taking millions of years to develop just a few centimeters, showing it is dynamic and
evolving.

ii. Factors of soil formation:

Soil is formed through a complex interaction of physical, biological, and chemical processes over time.

• Key factors in soil formation: Relief (landform features).

• Parent rock/bedrock.

• Climate.

• Vegetation and other forms of life.

• Time (long geological processes).

• Natural forces contributing: Temperature changes.

• Running water.

• Wind.

• Glaciers.

• Activities of decomposers.

• Processes involved: Chemical changes.

• Organic changes.

• Composition of soil: Organic matter (humus).

• Inorganic materials (minerals, particles).

iii. Soil profile: (lateral view of the soil layers)

iv. Classification of soils:

1. Alluvial Soil

• Distribution: Found in northern plains (Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra basins), parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and eastern
coastal deltas (Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri).

• Formation: Deposited by rivers; composed of sand, silt, and clay.

Types: Bangar (Old alluvial) → Coarser, less fertile, contains kankar nodules.

Khadar (New alluvial) → Finer particles, more fertile.

Fertility: Rich in potash, lime, and phosphoric acid; ideal for sugarcane, paddy, wheat, pulses.

Special note: Soils in dry areas are more alkaline but can be improved with irrigation.

2. Black Soil (Regur or Black Cotton Soil)

• Colour & Texture: Black, clayey, moisture-retentive.

• Distribution: Deccan Trap region — Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and along
Godavari–Krishna valleys.

• Formation: From basaltic lava flows; influenced by climate and parent rock.

• Nutrients: Rich in calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash, lime; poor in phosphoric acid.

• Features: Develops deep cracks in summer aiding aeration; sticky when wet.

• Crops: Cotton, sugarcane, wheat, and pulses.

3. Red and Yellow Soils

• Formation: Develop on crystalline igneous rocks in low-rainfall areas.

• Distribution: Eastern and southern Deccan plateau, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, parts of middle Ganga plain, piedmont zone
of Western Ghats.

• Colour: Red due to iron diffusion; yellow when hydrated.

• Fertility: Generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorus, and humus; can be improved with fertilizers.
4. Laterite Soil

• Origin: From Latin later (brick); formed under tropical/subtropical climate with alternate wet and dry seasons.

• Process: Intense leaching due to heavy rainfall.

• Characteristics: Acidic (pH < 6), low in nutrients, prone to erosion.

• Distribution: Southern states, Western Ghats (Maharashtra, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu), Odisha, West Bengal,
Northeast.

• Crops: Tea, coffee, cashew (after soil conservation).

• Humus content: High under forest cover; low in semi-arid areas.

5. Arid Soil

• Colour & Texture: Red to brown; sandy and saline.

• Distribution: Western Rajasthan and other dry regions.

• Features:

High salt content; sometimes used to extract common salt.

Low humus and moisture due to high evaporation.

Kankar layer at lower horizons restricts water infiltration.

Improvement: Becomes cultivable after irrigation.

6. Forest Soil

• Location: Hilly and mountainous regions with forest cover.

• Texture: Loamy and silty on valley sides.

• Coarse-grained on upper slopes.

• Characteristics: Acidic with low humus in snow-covered areas.

• Fertile on lower valley terraces and alluvial fans.

• Use: Supports forest vegetation and terrace cultivation. Gully erosion: Running water cuts deep channels in clayey
soil; land becomes unfit for cultivation (called ravines in Chambal basin).

• Sheet erosion: Water flows as a sheet over slopes, washing away topsoil.
• Wind erosion: Wind blows away loose soil from flat or sloping land.

v. Soil erosion

Soil Erosion:

Definition: Denudation (removal) of soil cover and washing down of soil by natural forces.

Soil formation and erosion occur simultaneously; human activities can disturb this balance.

Human causes: Deforestation, over-grazing, construction, and mining accelerate erosion.

Natural causes: Wind, glaciers, and running water contribute to erosion.

Types of erosion:

Defective farming methods: Ploughing up and down the slope creates channels for rapid water flow, increasing erosion.

vi. Soil Conservation Methods:

• Contour Ploughing Ploughing along contour lines slows down water flow on slopes.

• Prevents soil erosion and conserves moisture.

• Terrace Farming Steps (terraces) are cut on hill slopes.

• Reduces runoff and soil loss; common in Western and Central Himalayas.

• Strip Cropping Large fields divided into strips; grass grown between crop strips.

• Breaks wind force and prevents erosion.

• Shelter Belts Rows of trees planted to act as windbreaks.

• Stabilize sand dunes and prevent desert expansion (especially in western India).

• Rock Bunds Stones or rocks arranged along contours or field boundaries.

• Slow down surface runoff, trap soil, and conserve moisture.

• Common in semi-arid and hilly regions.

• Contour Bunding Earthen embankments built along contour lines.

• Reduce water flow and soil erosion on gentle slopes.

•
• Check Dams and Gully Plugging Small barriers built across gullies or streams.

• Prevent further deepening of gullies and promote water infiltration.

• Afforestation and Grass Planting Planting trees and grasses on degraded land.

• Protects soil from erosion and restores fertility.

G2. Forest and Wildlife Resources

1. The world we live in is an interconnected Web of Life:
• Our planet is home to a vast range of life forms.
• Humans are part of a complex ecological system and depend entirely on it for survival.
• Plants, animals, and microorganisms maintain the quality of vital resources.
• Forests are the primary producers that supports all other living beings.
2. Biodiversity is the variety of all living things on Earth.
3. The Importance and Evolution of Conservation in India
A. Why Conservation is Essential
• It preserves the ecological diversity that provides our basic necessities: clean water, breathable air, and
fertile soil.
• to maintain genetic diversity.
• Many industries like agriculture and fisheries rely on traditional crop varieties and aquatic biodiversity.
B. The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
• The first national legal framework for protecting natural habitats.
• An all-India list of protected species was published to prioritize those most at risk.
• The act focused on saving remaining populations by banning hunting, providing legal safeguards for
habitats, and strictly restricting wildlife trade.
C. Government Interventions and Protected Areas
• Central and state governments created a network of National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
• Targeted "Project" missions were launched for critically threatened animals, including:
o The Tiger and One-horned Rhinoceros.
o The Kashmir Stag (Hangul) and three types of Crocodiles (Freshwater, Saltwater, and Gharial).
o The Asiatic Lion, Indian Elephant, and Snow Leopard.
D. Expanding the Scope of Conservation
• Recent efforts have shifted from protecting individual "charismatic" animals to preserving
entire biodiversity systems.
• Since the 1980s, insects like butterflies, moths, beetles, and dragonflies have been added to protected lists.
• In 1991, the focus expanded further to include plants, starting with the protection of six specific species.
4. Classification and Distribution of India's Forests
In India, the government manages the majority of forest and wildlife resources through the Forest Department.
These are categorized based on their level of protection and management:
A. Types of Forest Classifications
• Reserved Forests:
Consist of more than half of India's total forest land.
These are considered the most valuable for conservation and are strictly regulated.
High percentages are found in states like Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, West Bengal, and Maharashtra.
• Protected Forests:
Account for nearly one-third of the total forest area.
The government protects these lands to prevent further degradation.
Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Odisha, and Rajasthan have the bulk of their forest area under
this category.
• Unclassed Forests:
These include various forests and wastelands owned by the government, private individuals, or local
communities.
Prevalent in North-eastern states and parts of Gujarat, where local communities play a primary role in
management.
B. Permanent Forest Estates
• Reserved and protected forests are together known as permanent forest estates. They are maintained for
both ecological protection and the sustainable production of timber.
• Madhya Pradesh holds the largest area of permanent forests in India, covering 75% of its total forest land.
5. Community-Led Conservation in India
Traditional communities are not just residents of forests but active protectors of biodiversity.
A. Local resistance and protection
• In the Sariska Tiger Reserve, villagers successfully used the Wildlife Protection Act to stop destructive
mining.
• In Alwar, Rajasthan, five villages created the Bhairodev Dakav ‘Sonchuri’. It is a 1,200-hectare private
sanctuary with its own rules against hunting and encroachment.
B. Important movements and ecological farming
• The Chipko Movement: Resisted deforestation in the Himalayas, encouraged community-led planting
of indigenous species.
• Beej Bachao Andolan and Navdanya proved that diverse, organic crop production is both possible and
economically stable.
C. Joint Forest Management (JFM)
• Formally started in Odisha in 1988
 • JFM involves village institutions working with the government to protect degraded forest land.
• In exchange for their protection efforts, communities receive rights to non-timber forest products (like
honey or fruits) and a share of the harvested timber.
G3. Water resources

I. Water – some facts:

• Limited Usable Water 75% of Earth's surface

• Only surface runoff (rivers and lakes) and groundwater are the easily available source for us.

• This supply is constantly replenished and filtered through the hydrological cycle (water cycle).

• Because water is in a continuous state of movement and recharge, it is classified as a renewable resource.

II. Water scarcity

A. Primary Causes of Scarcity (Quantitative scarcity)

• Over-exploitation: Excessive withdrawal of water, particularly from groundwater sources, leads to rapid depletion.

• Unequal Access: Water is often distributed unfairly among different social groups, leaving some with chronic
shortages.

• Population Growth: Larger populations increase domestic demand and require more water for food security.

B. Impact of Agriculture & Industry

• Irrigation Demands: Agriculture is the largest consumer of water; expanding dry-season farming has led to falling
water tables.

• Industrial Pressure: Industries and MNCs exert pressure by consuming heavy volumes of water and
requiring hydroelectric power.

• Urban Lifestyles: Dense urban centers with private pumping devices further aggravate the depletion of fragile
resources.

C. Qualitative Scarcity (Water Quality)

• Pollution: Even where water is abundant, it may be hazardous due to domestic waste, industrial chemicals, and
agricultural pesticides.

• Health Risks: Poor water quality leads to significant health hazards and degrades natural ecosystems.

D. Government Initiatives

• Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM): An initiative aimed at providing potable piped water to every rural household at a rate
of 55 litres per capita per day.

E. The Need for Conservation

• Resource Management: To prevent an "ecological crisis," it is essential to manage water to ensure livelihoods and
food production.

• Agricultural Revolution: A shift toward drought-resistant crops and dry farming techniques is necessary to reduce
consumption.

III. Role and significance of dams:

1. Definition and Traditional Use

 • Dams are structures built to impound rivers and rainwater.

• Their primary purpose was to store water for later use in agricultural irrigation.

2. Multi-Purpose Projects

Modern dams are "multi-purpose" because they integrate several functions, including:

• Electricity generation (hydel power) and water supply for domestic and industrial sectors.

• Flood control by regulating river flow.

• Supporting fish breeding, inland navigation, and recreation.

Examples

• Bhakra-Nangal Project: Located in the Sutlej-Beas river basin, it serves both irrigation and power production.

• Hirakud Project: Situated in the Mahanadi basin, it focuses on water conservation combined with flood control.

3. National Development Symbolism

• "Temples of Modern India": Jawaharlal Nehru used this term to describe dams, viewing them as essential for
national progress.

• Economic Integration: They were designed to bridge the development of the rural village economy with rapid
urban industrialisation.

4. Environmental and ecological drawbacks of large dams:

Alteration of River Hydrology

• Damming regulates the river's movement, interfering with its natural flow patterns.

• It leads to poor sediment transport and excessive buildup at the bottom of reservoirs.

• Excessive sedimentation is less suitable for river life.

• Reservoirs flood existing floodplains.

• Dams make it difficult for aquatic fauna to migrate, which is particularly harmful during spawning seasons.

IV. Consequences of large dams:

• Silt buildup in reservoirs reduces capacity, triggering floods rather than preventing them.

• Large dams often fail to manage excessive rainfall, leading to the devastation of life and property.

• Uncontrolled releases and flooding cause significant loss of topsoil.

• Dams trap silt, depriving floodplains of natural nutrients and leading to land degradation.

• These projects are linked to induced earthquakes, the spread of water-borne diseases, and increased pest issues.

• Availability of irrigation has pushed farmers toward water-intensive commercial crops.

• Excessive irrigation in poorly drained areas causes salinisation. It severely damages soil fertility.

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY):

To counter these issues, the government launched PMKSY with several core objectives:

• Har Khet Ko Pani: Expanding physical access to assured irrigation for every farm.
 • Per Drop More Crop: Improving water-use efficiency through micro-irrigation and saving technologies.

• Sustainable Practices: Introducing conservation methods to ensure long-term rural prosperity.

V. Traditional and modern rainwater harvesting techniques used in India as sustainable alternatives to large dams:

i. Historical and Regional Techniques

• Mountainous Regions: People in the Western Himalayas built diversion channels known as ‘guls’ or ‘kuls’ for
agriculture.

• Flood Plains: In Bengal, inundation channels were developed to utilize floodwaters for irrigation.

• Arid Regions: Agricultural fields were converted into rain-fed storage structures like ‘khadins’ (Jaisalmer)
and ‘Johads’ (Rajasthan) to moisten the soil.

ii. The Tanka System of Rajasthan

• Underground tanks (tankas) were built inside houses or courtyards, often as large as a room, to store drinking
water.

• Connected to sloping roofs via pipes; the first rain was used to clean the system, while subsequent showers were
collected.

• Palar Pani: This harvested rainwater is considered the purest form of natural water and provides a reliable
summer source.

• Climate Control: Underground rooms were often built next to tankas to keep the living space cool during extreme
heat.

iii. Modern Success: Gendathur Case Study

• Community Implementation: In Gendathur (Karnataka), 200 households have adopted rooftop harvesting,
making the village "rich in rainwater."

• Efficiency: With an 80% collection efficiency, each house collects roughly 50,000 litres annually, demonstrating
the system's viability for rural water needs.

iv. Legal Precedent

• Tamil Nadu is the first state in India to make rooftop rainwater harvesting structures compulsory for all houses to
prevent groundwater depletion.

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H2. Nationalism in India

Main concepts:

1. The First World War, Khilafat, and Non-Cooperation

• Impact of World War I

o Idea of Satyagraha and Early Successes

• The Rowlatt Act (1919)

• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919)

• Khilafat Movement

2. Differing Strands within the Movement

 • In Towns

• In the Countryside:

o Peasants

o Tribals

• In Plantations

3. Towards Civil Disobedience

• Withdrawal of Non-Cooperation

• Simon Commission (1928)

• Purna Swaraj

• Salt March (1930)

• Limits of civil disobedience movement

4. The sense of Collective Belonging

Time line of important events:

Year Event
1915 Mahatma Gandhi returns to India from South Africa.
1917 Champaran Satyagraha (Bihar) against the oppressive indigo plantation system.
1917 Kheda Satyagraha (Gujarat) to support peasants struggling with crop failure and plague.
1918 Rowlatt Act passed; Rowlatt Satyagraha launched in protest.
April 13, 1919 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre occurs in Amritsar.
1920 Khilafat Committee formed; Congress adopts the Non-Cooperation program at Nagpur.
1921 Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movement officially launched.
Feb 19122 Chauri Chaura incident leads Gandhi to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement.
1924 Execution of Alluri Sitaram Raju, ending the Gudem Hills tribal rebellion.
1928 Simon Commission arrives in India, met with widespread "Go Back Simon" protests.
1929 Lahore Congress Session under Nehru; resolution for Purna Swaraj (Total Independence).
Mar 12, 1930 Dandi March begins from Sabarmati Ashram to protest the British salt monopoly.
April 6, 1930 Salt Law broken at Dandi, marking the start of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
1931 Gandhi-Irwin Pact signed; Gandhi goes to London for the Second Round Table Conference.
1932 Poona Pact signed between Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar regarding Dalit representation

1. The first World War, Khilafat movement and Non cooperation Movement
1.1 Impact of World war I on Indian society:

• To fund massive war expenses, the British government took war loans and increased taxes. This led to the
introduction of income tax and a rise in customs duties.

• Between 1913 and 1918, prices of essential goods doubled, causing extreme hardship for common citizens.

• Rural areas faced widespread anger as the colonial state used "forced recruitment" to supply soldiers for the British
army.

• Successive crop failures in 1918-19 and 1920-21 led to acute food shortages across the country.

• An influenza epidemic coincided with food shortages, resulting in the deaths of 12 to 13 million people, according to
the 1921 census.
 • People hoped their suffering would end once the war concluded, but the persistence of these hardships fueled
deeper resentment toward British rule.

1.2 Idea of Satyagraha: The core principles of the idea of satyagraha are:

• The term satyagraha emphasizes the power of truth and the necessity of searching for it.

• It suggests that if your cause is true and you are fighting injustice, you do not need physical violence to defeat an
oppressor.

• A satyagrahi (one who practices satyagraha) seeks to win the battle without vengeance or aggression.

• Instead of being forced, the oppressor should be persuaded to see the truth. The goal is to touch the "conscience" of
the opponent through non-violence.

• Gandhi believed that through this method, truth would always win in the end.

• He viewed this "dharma of non-violence" as the single most powerful tool to unite all Indians against colonial rule.

1.3 Early Satyagrahas:

The three early successes where Mahatma Gandhi first applied the method of Satyagraha in India:

• Champaran (Bihar), 1917: Gandhi travelled here to inspire and lead peasants in their struggle against the oppressive
indigo plantation system.

• Kheda (Gujarat), 1918: He organised a movement to support peasants who were unable to pay land revenue due
to crop failure and a plague epidemic. They demanded that revenue collection be relaxed.

• Ahmedabad (Gujarat), 1918: Gandhi intervened on behalf of cotton mill workers, organising a satyagraha to address
their grievances regarding wages and working conditions.

1.4 The Rowlatt act and the Rowlatt satyagraha:

A. Rowlatt act: It was the first major nationwide challenge Gandhi launched against British colonial laws.

• Following the success of local movements, Gandhi decided to launch a nationwide satyagraha in 1919 against
the Rowlatt Act.

• The Act was "hurriedly passed" by the Imperial Legislative Council despite unanimous opposition from Indian
members.

• The law granted the British government enormous power to crush political activities.

• Its most controversial feature allowed the government to imprison political activists for up to two
years without any legal trial.

• Gandhi proposed a non-violent civil disobedience movement to oppose this "unjust law."

• The movement was set to begin with a hartal (a mass protest involving the closing of shops and offices) on 6
April 1919.

B. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre:

• The anti-Rowlatt protesters participated in city rallies, strikes in railway workshops, and the closing of shops.

• Fearing the disruption of essential services like railways and telegraphs, the British began arresting local leaders
in Amritsar and banned Mahatma Gandhi from entering Delhi.

• On 10 April, police fired on a peaceful procession in Amritsar, which triggered retaliatory attacks by the public on
banks, post offices, and railway stations.
 • To regain control, the British administration imposed Martial Law, and General Dyer assumed command of the
city.

• Jallianwala Bagh Gathering (13 April): A large crowd gathered in an enclosed ground; some were there to protest
government repression, while others (mostly villagers) were attending the Baisakhi fair, unaware that martial law
was in place.

General Dyer blocked the only exit points and ordered his troops to open fire on the trapped crowd, killing
hundreds of people.

Dyer later stated his goal was to "produce a moral effect"—specifically to instill a sense of "terror and awe" in the
minds of the satyagrahis.

c. The immediate consequence of the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and its impact on the Indian independence
movement:

• Crowds in many North Indian towns took to the streets through strikes, clashed with police, and attacked
government buildings.

• The colonial government responded with extreme measures intended to humiliate and terrorise the public.

• Protesters were forced to undergo degrading acts, such as:

o Rubbing their noses on the ground.

o Crawling on the streets.

o Performing a salaam (salute) to all British officers ("sahibs").

• People were flogged, and some villages, such as those around Gujranwala in Punjab, were even bombed.

• Deeply disturbed by the spread of violence, Mahatma Gandhi called off the nationwide Rowlatt Satyagraha.

1.5 The Khilafat Non cooperation movement:

• Gandhi realized that while the Rowlatt Satyagraha was widespread, it was mostly limited to cities. He wanted a
movement that reached every corner of India.

• Gandhi believed a truly national movement was impossible without bringing Hindus and Muslims together.

• The Khilafat Issue: After World War I, rumors spread that a harsh peace treaty would be imposed on the Ottoman
Emperor (the Khalifa), who was the spiritual leader of the Islamic world.

To protect the Khalifa’s powers, a committee was set up in Bombay in March 1919.

Young Muslim leaders, Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, approached Gandhi to discuss united mass action.

Gandhi saw the Khilafat issue as a unique opportunity to bring Muslims into the national struggle.

• At the Calcutta session of Congress 1920, Gandhi convinced other leaders to start a Non-Cooperation Movement in
support of both Khilafat and Swaraj. In the Nagpur Congress session of 1920, the Khilafat non co operation
movement was adopted.

1.6 The idea behind the Non-Cooperation Movement as explained by Gandhi in his 1909 book, Hind Swaraj:

Gandhi argued that the British were able to establish their rule in India only because of the cooperation of Indians.

He stated that the colonial administration continued to function solely because Indians continued to work with and
support the system.
 Gandhi believed that if Indians collectively refused to cooperate, the British administrative and economic machinery
would be unable to function.

He predicted that if this cooperation was withdrawn, British rule would collapse within a single year, leading to the
achievement of Swaraj (self-rule).

1.7 The steps planned of non-cooperation:

Gandhiji proposed that the movement should not happen all at once but should unfold in stages to build momentum.

The first stage involved the symbolic act of returning titles and honors previously awarded by the British government.

The movement called for a complete boycott of the pillars of British administration, including:

o Civil services, army, and police.

o Courts and legislative councils.

o Schools and foreign-made goods.

If the government responded with repression, the movement would escalate into a full civil disobedience campaign.

1.8 The opinion differences within the Indian National Congress:

Many members of the Congress were worried about Gandhi's proposals for the Non-Cooperation Movement.

There was specific hesitation regarding the boycott of council elections scheduled for November 1920, as some
leaders wanted to participate in the legislative process.

Leaders feared that a mass movement might trigger popular violence, similar to what happened during the Rowlatt
Satyagraha.

Between September and December 1920, there was a period of strong disagreement and debate within the party
between supporters and opponents of the plan.

Finally, in December 1920 at the Nagpur Congress Session, a compromise was reached.

The Non-Cooperation programme was formally adopted at this session, marking the start of a unified struggle.

2. Differing strands within the movement

2.1 The movement in towns:

Initial Impact and Participation

• led by the urban middle classes, thousands of students left government schools, teachers resigned, and lawyers
gave up their practices.

• Council elections were boycotted in most provinces, except the Justice Party in Madras, which participated to
gain political power usually reserved for Brahmans.

• Economic Impact:

o Foreign goods were boycotted, and foreign cloth was burnt in huge bonfires.

o Liquor shops were picketed.

o Foreign cloth imports halved (dropping from Rs 102 crore to Rs 57 crore) between 1921 and 1922.

• Boost to Indian Industry: As people discarded imported clothes, the demand and production for Indian textile
mills and handlooms increased significantly.

Reasons for the Slowdown in Cities

 • Khadi was often much more expensive than mass-produced British mill cloth. The poor could not afford it.

• Alternative Indian institutions (schools, courts) were lacking. So people had no choice but to return to British
ones.

• Students, teachers, and lawyers eventually "trickled back" to government schools and courts due to the lack of
viable Indian options.

2.2 Rebellion in the country side:

The Peasant Struggle in Awadh

• led by Baba Ramchandra, a sanyasi and former indentured labourer from Fiji.

• Peasants fought against talukdars and landlords who:

o Charged exorbitantly high rents and various extra taxes (cesses).

o Forced peasants into begar (unpaid forced labour).

o Provided no security of tenure, frequently evicting tenants to prevent them from gaining rights to the
land.

• Demands: reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and a social boycott of oppressive landlords.

• Local panchayats organised nai-dhobi bandhs to deny landlords essential services like barbers and washermen.

Congress Involvement and the Oudh Kisan Sabha

• In June 1920, Jawaharlal Nehru toured Awadh villages to understand peasant issues.

• By October 1920, the Oudh Kisan Sabha was formed, led by Nehru and Baba Ramchandra; it quickly grew to over
300 branches.

• By 1921, the movement turned violent in ways the Congress did not approve of: houses of landlords were
attacked, markets were looted, and grain stores were seized.

• Local leaders spread rumours that Mahatma Gandhi had ordered a tax strike and land redistribution.

• Peasants used Gandhi's name to justify all their actions and aspirations, even when they turned toward violence.

The militant tribal revolt - The Gudem Hills Revolt (Andhra Pradesh):

• Tibals in the Gudem hills followed a violent guerrilla struggle.

• They were angry with the following policies of the British government:

o Preventing them from grazing cattle or collecting fuelwood and fruits.

o Threatening their livelihoods and cultural heritage.

o Compelling them to provide unpaid labour for road construction.

• Alluri Sitaram Raju, a charismatic leader, viewed as an incarnation of God by the rebels, claimed to have special
powers, such as surviving bullet shots and making astrological predictions.

A staunch follower of Mahatma Gandhi, was inspired by the Non-Cooperation Movement, and encouraged followers
to wear Khadi and give up drinking.

While he admired Gandhi, Raju fundamentally disagreed on non-violence, asserting that India could only be liberated
through the use of force.

The Gudem rebels attacked police stations and attempted to kill British officials to achieve Swaraj.
 Alluri Sitaram Raju was captured and executed by the British in 1924.

C. Swaraj in plantations - the Struggle of Plantation Workers:

For these workers, freedom meant the right to move freely in and out of the tea gardens and to maintain a
connection with their home villages.

The Inland Emigration Act (1859): Under this restrictive law, workers were legally forbidden from leaving the
plantations without permission, which was rarely granted.

Upon hearing of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers left the tea gardens, believing that "Gandhi
Raj" was arriving and that they would be granted land in their own villages.

The workers never made it home. They were stranded by railway and steamer strikes, caught by the police,
and brutally beaten.

D. The Meaning of Swaraj for the Masses

Different groups of people had diverse Interpretations of Swaraj. People imagined Swaraj as a time when all personal
suffering and troubles would end.

Despite their local interpretations, by chanting Gandhi's name and demanding "Swatantra Bharat" (Independent
India), these groups were emotionally connecting to a larger national cause.

By acting in the name of the Mahatma, local groups identified themselves with a pan-Indian movement that went far
beyond their immediate regional issues.

3. Towards Civil disobedience movement:

3.1 Withdrawal of Non-Cooperation & Emergence of Swaraj Party:

• In February 1922, Gandhi withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement due to rising violence.

• He believed satyagrahis needed proper training before engaging in mass struggles.

• Within the Congress, some leaders grew tired of mass movements and preferred council politics.

• The Government of India Act, 1919 had set up provincial councils, which leaders wanted to use to oppose British
policies and expose their lack of democracy.

• C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party to push for council participation.

• Younger leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose demanded radical mass agitation and pressed for full
independence.

3.2 Indian Politics in the Late 1920s

1. Economic Depression and Agrarian Crisis

• Worldwide economic depression affected India.

• Agricultural prices fell from 1926, collapsing after 1930.

• Decline in demand and exports → peasants struggled to sell harvests and pay revenue.

• By 1930, the countryside was in turmoil.

2. Simon Commission and Nationalist Response

• Statutory Commission (1927) under Sir John Simon set up by British Tory government.

• Purpose: examine India’s constitutional system and suggest changes.

 • Problem: no Indian members, all were British.

• Arrival in 1928 met with protests and slogan “Go Back Simon”.

• Both Congress and Muslim League joined demonstrations.

3. Irwin’s Dominion Status Offer

• Viceroy Lord Irwin announced in October 1929:

o Vague promise of dominion status in the future.

o Proposal for a Round Table Conference to discuss constitution.

• Congress leaders dissatisfied; radicals grew stronger.

4. Rise of Radical Leadership

• Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose became more assertive.

• Liberals and moderates lost influence.

• Push for full independence gained momentum.

5. Lahore Congress and Purna Swaraj

• December 1929: Lahore Congress under Jawaharlal Nehru’s presidency.

• Formal demand for Purna Swaraj (complete independence).

• Declared 26 January 1930 as Independence Day with pledge for freedom.

• Celebrations had little public response, prompting Gandhi to link freedom with everyday issues.

3.3 Gandhi’s Salt Strategy and Civil Disobedience

1. Salt as a Symbol

• Gandhi identified salt as a unifying symbol for the nation.

• Salt was consumed by all classes—rich and poor alike.

• The salt tax and government monopoly exposed the oppressive nature of British rule.

2. Eleven Demands to Viceroy Irwin

• On 31 January 1930, Gandhi sent a letter listing 11 demands.

• Demands covered general issues and specific class interests (industrialists, peasants, etc.).

3. Ultimatum and British Response

• Gandhi’s letter acted as an ultimatum: fulfill demands by 11 March 1930 or face civil disobedience.

• Viceroy Irwin refused to negotiate, rejecting the demands.

4. Launch of the Salt March

• Gandhi began the Salt March with 78 volunteers.

• This marked the start of the Civil Disobedience Movement, linking the abstract idea of freedom to a concrete
everyday issue.

3.4 The Salt March and Civil Disobedience

 1. Beginning of the March

• Gandhi started the Salt March with 78 trusted volunteers.

• Route: Sabarmati Ashram → Dandi (Gujarati coast).

• Distance: 240 miles, covered in 24 days (≈10 miles/day).

2. Public Participation

• Thousands gathered along the way to hear Gandhi.

• He explained the meaning of swaraj (self-rule).

• Urged people to peacefully defy British authority.

3. Culmination at Dandi

• On 6 April 1930, Gandhi reached Dandi.

• He ceremonially broke the salt law by making salt from seawater.

4. Launch of Civil Disobedience Movement

• This act marked the formal beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

• The movement connected the abstract idea of freedom with a concrete everyday issue (salt).

3.5 Civil Disobedience vs. Non-Cooperation Movement

1. Expansion of Strategy

• Unlike 1921–22, people were asked not only to refuse cooperation but also to break colonial laws.

• Thousands broke the salt law, manufactured salt, and protested at salt factories.

2. Forms of Protest

• Boycott of foreign cloth and picketing of liquor shops.

• Peasants refused to pay revenue and chaukidari taxes.

• Village officials resigned from their posts.

• Forest dwellers violated forest laws, entering reserved forests to collect wood and graze cattle.

3. Government Repression

• Colonial government began arresting Congress leaders one by one.

• This triggered violent clashes in several places.

4. Major Incidents

• April 1930: Arrest of Abdul Ghaffar Khan led to mass protests in Peshawar, where crowds faced armoured cars
and police firing; many were killed.

• May 1930: Arrest of Mahatma Gandhi sparked industrial workers in Sholapur to attack police posts, municipal
buildings, lawcourts, and railway stations.

5. Brutal Government Response

• The British launched a policy of brutal repression.

 • Peaceful satyagrahis were attacked, women and children beaten.

• Around 100,000 people were arrested during the movement.

3.6 Events after violence:

Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931)

• On 5 March 1931, Gandhi signed the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.

• Gandhi agreed to participate in the Round Table Conference in London.

• The government agreed to release political prisoners.

• The Congress had earlier boycotted the first Round Table Conference.

Round Table Conference in London

• In December 1931, Gandhi attended the conference.

• Negotiations broke down, leaving Gandhi disappointed.

Renewed Repression in India

• On returning, Gandhi found a new cycle of repression.

• Ghaffar Khan and Jawaharlal Nehru were in jail.

• The Congress was declared illegal.

• Measures imposed to prevent meetings, demonstrations, and boycotts.

Relaunch of Civil Disobedience Movement

• Gandhi relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement with apprehension.

• The movement continued for over a year.

• By 1934, the movement lost momentum.

3.7 Participation of Social Groups in Civil Disobedience Movement

1. Rich Peasants

• Communities: Patidars (Gujarat) and Jats (U.P.).

• Hit hard by trade depression and falling prices.

• Could not pay high government revenue demands.

• Became enthusiastic supporters, mobilised communities, enforced boycotts.

• Saw swaraj as relief from high revenues.

• Disappointed when movement ended in 1931 without revenue revision → many withdrew in 1932.

2. Poor Peasants

• Mostly small tenants renting land from landlords.

• Depression reduced cash incomes → unable to pay rent.

• Demanded remission of unpaid rent.

• Joined radical movements led by Socialists and Communists.

 • Congress avoided ‘no rent’ campaigns to prevent conflict with landlords → relationship remained uncertain.

3. Business Classes

• Profited during First World War, sought expansion.

• Opposed colonial restrictions on trade and industry.

• Demands: protection from imports, favorable rupee-sterling ratio.

• Formed Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress (1920) and FICCI (1927).

• Leaders: Purshottamdas Thakurdas, G.D. Birla.

• Supported Civil Disobedience initially with funds and boycott of imports.

• Saw swaraj as economic freedom.

• After Round Table Conference failure, enthusiasm declined → feared militant activities, disruption of business,
and rise of socialism.

4. Industrial Working Classes

• Limited participation, except in Nagpur region.

• Workers stayed aloof as industrialists aligned with Congress.

• Some joined selectively: boycott of foreign goods, strikes.

• Examples:

o Railway strikes (1930).

o Dockworkers strike (1932).

o Chotanagpur tin miners wore Gandhi caps, joined rallies.

• Congress avoided workers’ demands to prevent alienating industrialists.

5. Women

• Large-scale participation during Salt March and protests.

• Activities: manufactured salt, picketed cloth and liquor shops, joined marches, went to jail.

• Urban participants: high-caste women; rural participants: rich peasant households.

• Inspired by Gandhi’s call, saw service to nation as sacred duty.

• However, no radical change in women’s position:

o Gandhi emphasised role as mothers and wives.

o Congress allowed only symbolic presence

3.8 The Limits of Civil Disobedience

Dalits and the Limits of Civil Disobedience

• Dalits (then called untouchables, later Depressed Classes) began calling themselves oppressed around the 1930s.

• Congress avoided dalit issues fearing backlash from conservative sanatanis.

• Gandhi declared swaraj impossible without eliminating untouchability.

 o Called dalits harijans (children of God).

o Organised satyagrahas for temple entry, access to wells, tanks, roads, schools.

o Personally cleaned toilets to dignify the work of sweepers.

• Dalit leaders demanded reserved seats and separate electorates for political empowerment.

• Dalit participation in Civil Disobedience was limited, especially in Maharashtra and Nagpur.

Ambedkar vs. Gandhi

• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar formed the Depressed Classes Association (1930).

• At the Second Round Table Conference, demanded separate electorates for dalits.

• British government accepted Ambedkar’s demand.

• Gandhi opposed, began a fast unto death.

• Result: Poona Pact (Sept 1932) → reserved seats for dalits in legislatures, but elected by general electorate.

• Dalit movement remained apprehensive of Congress leadership.

Muslim Response to Civil Disobedience

• After decline of Non-Cooperation–Khilafat Movement, many Muslims felt alienated from Congress.

• From mid-1920s, Congress associated with Hindu nationalist groups like the Hindu Mahasabha.

• Rising Hindu-Muslim communal clashes and riots deepened divisions.

• Efforts at unity:

o 1927 negotiations between Congress and Muslim League.

o Jinnah willing to drop demand for separate electorates if Muslims got reserved seats and proportional
representation in Bengal & Punjab.

o Talks failed at All Parties Conference (1928) due to opposition from Hindu Mahasabha.

• By 1930, atmosphere of suspicion and distrust prevailed.

• Many Muslims feared minority culture and identity would be submerged under Hindu majority.

• Result: limited Muslim participation in Civil Disobedience.

4. The sense of collective belongingness

Unity and Collective Belonging

• Nationalism spread when people felt part of the same nation.

• Unity developed through shared struggles and cultural processes.

• Tools: history, fiction, folklore, songs, prints, and symbols.

Image of Bharat Mata

• Nation symbolised through figures/images.

• Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay created the image in the 1870s.

o Wrote Vande Mataram as a hymn to the motherland.

 o Included in his novel Anandamath.

• Abanindranath Tagore painted Bharat Mata as an ascetic, divine, spiritual figure.

• Image spread through popular prints and paintings.

• Devotion to Bharat Mata seen as evidence of nationalism.

Revival of Folklore

• Nationalists collected folk tales, songs, legends to preserve traditional culture.

• Aim: restore national identity and pride.

• Rabindranath Tagore collected ballads, rhymes, myths in Bengal.

• Natesa Sastri published The Folklore of Southern India (4 volumes).

• Folklore seen as national literature and authentic expression of people’s thoughts.

National Symbols and Flags

• Symbols used to unify people and inspire nationalism.

• Swadeshi Movement (Bengal): tricolour flag (red, green, yellow) with 8 lotuses (provinces) and crescent
moon (Hindus & Muslims).

• 1921: Gandhi designed the Swaraj flag (red, green, white) with spinning wheel symbolising self-help.

• Carrying the flag became a symbol of defiance.

Reinterpretation of History

• Nationalists re-examined history to instill pride in India’s past.

• Highlighted glorious ancient achievements in art, science, religion, law, trade.

• Framed colonial rule as a period of decline.

• Urged Indians to take pride in their heritage and struggle against British oppression.

Limitations and Exclusion

• Glorification of Hindu past and iconography sometimes excluded other communities.

P2. Federalism
I. Federalism – Meaning
• Federalism is a system of government in which powers are divided between:
o the Central/National Government, and
o the State/Regional Governments.
• Both levels of government work independently in their own areas.
• Citizens are governed by more than one level of government.
• Example: India has Union Government, State Governments, and Local Governments.
Objectives of Federalism
• To maintain the unity of the country.
• To accommodate regional diversity.
• To ensure power-sharing among different levels of government.
• To promote cooperation and mutual trust among governments.
Difference between Federal and Unitary Government
 Federal Government Unitary Government
Power divided between Centre and States. Central government is supreme.
States have constitutional powers. State/local governments are subordinate.
Central government cannot easily take away state Centre can change powers of states.
powers.
Example: India, USA, Belgium. Example: Sri Lanka.

II. Key Features of Federalism

1. Two or More Levels of Government
o Different tiers exist: at National level, State level, Local level (in India)
2. Same Citizens, Different Jurisdictions
• All governments govern the same people.
• Each level has powers over specific subjects.
3. Constitutional Division of Powers
• Powers of each level are clearly mentioned in the Constitution.
• Their authority is constitutionally guaranteed.
4. Constitution Cannot Be Changed Unilaterally
• One level of government cannot change the Constitution alone.
• Both Centre and States must agree.
5. Independent Judiciary
• Courts settle disputes between Centre and States.
• Supreme Court acts as the final authority.
6. Separate Sources of Revenue
• Each level has taxation powers.
• Ensures financial independence.
7. Dual Objectives
• Promote national unity.
• Respect regional diversity.
III. Types of Federations
A. Coming Together Federation
Independent states come together to form a larger country.
States are powerful.
All states usually have equal powers.
Examples: United States of America, Switzerland, Australia
B. Holding Together Federation
A large country divides powers between Centre and states.
Central government is more powerful.
States may have unequal powers.
Some states may receive special powers.
Examples: India, Belgium, Spain
IV. What Makes India a Federal Country?
i. India as a Union of States
• Constitution describes India as a Union of States.
• Though the word “federation” is not used, India follows federal principles.
ii. Three-Tier Government System
1. Union Government - Governs the whole country.
2. State Governments - Govern individual states.
3. Local Governments - Panchayats and Municipalities.
ii. Distribution of Powers
A. Union List
 Subjects of national importance. Only Parliament can make laws on these subjects.
Examples: Defence, Foreign affairs, Banking, Currency, Communications
B. State List
Subjects related to state and local importance. Only State Governments can make laws.
Examples: Police, Agriculture, Irrigation, Trade, Commerce
C. Concurrent List
Subjects of common interest. Both Centre and States can make laws. In case of conflict, Union law prevails.
Examples: Education, Forests, Marriage, Adoption, Trade unions
D. Residuary Subjects
Subjects not mentioned in any list. Parliament has authority over these subjects.
Examples: Computer software, Modern technological matters
iv. Special Provisions for Some States
Reasons for Special Status
• Social and historical conditions.
• Protection of tribal culture and land rights.
Features
• Protection of indigenous culture.
• Restrictions on outsiders buying land.
• Special employment opportunities.
States with Special Powers – Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram
V. Role of Judiciary in Federalism
Functions
• Interprets Constitution.
• Resolves Centre-State disputes.
• Protects constitutional balance.
Important Institutions
• Supreme Court of India
• High Courts
VI. How Federalism is Practised in India
A. Linguistic States:
States formed on the basis of language.
People speaking the same language live together.
Examples: States reorganised after Independence.
Impact:
• Strengthened national unity.
• Improved administration.
• Reduced regional tensions.
B. Language Policy:
Important Features
• No national language declared.
• Hindi made official language.
• English continues for official work.
Scheduled Languages
• Constitution recognises 22 Scheduled Languages.
Importance
• Protects linguistic diversity.
• Prevents domination of one language.
• Promotes unity in diversity.
C. Centre–State Relations
Early Phase
• Same party ruled Centre and States.
 • Centre often dominated states.
• State governments were sometimes dismissed unfairly.
Changes After 1990:
- Regional parties became powerful.
- National parties needed support from regional parties. So coalition governments began to be formed.
Results
• Better power sharing.
• More respect for states.
• Strengthened federalism.
VII. Decentralisation in India
Transfer of power from Centre and States to local governments.
Importance:
• Local people understand local problems better.
• Encourages people’s participation.
• Improves efficiency.
• Promotes local self-government.
Constitutional Amendments of 1992 to strengthen local governments:
- Mandatory elections for local bodies.
- Seats reserved for SCs, STs, OBCs and Women
- At least one-third seats reserved for women.
- State Election Commission conducts local body elections independently.
- States share powers and funds with local bodies.
Rural Local Government – Panchayati Raj
Gram Panchayat
• Local government at village level.
• Members called Panchs.
• Head called Sarpanch.
Gram Sabha
• Includes all adult voters of the village.
• Approves budget and reviews work.
Panchayat Samiti
• Block or Mandal level body.
• Group of Gram Panchayats.
Zilla Parishad
• District level local government.
• Headed by Chairperson.
Urban Local Government
Municipalities - for towns.
Municipal Corporations - for large cities.
Heads
• Chairperson (Municipality)
• Mayor (Municipal Corporation)
Importance of Local Governments
• Deepens democracy.
• Encourages public participation.
• Improves representation of women and weaker sections.
• Makes administration closer to people.
Around 36 lakh elected representatives in local bodies.
Problems of Local Governments
• Gram Sabha meetings not regular.
• States do not transfer enough powers.
 • Lack of funds and resources.
• Dependence on state governments.
***Experiment in Participatory Democracy – Porto Alegre, Brazil
Features
• Citizens directly participate in budget-making.
• Meetings held at local level.
• People decide development priorities.
Benefits
• Better welfare for poor people.
• Fair use of public money.
• Increased democratic participation.
Similar Experiment in India
• Participatory planning in Kerala.