LIFE PROCESSES

Prepared by-
Ngakneikip Chiru
TGT Science
Adarsha Vidyalaya Lowairpoa
Criteria to decide whether something is alive
• Growth
• Movement
• Adaptations
• Respiration
• Reproduction
• Hormonal control
• Circulation
• Coordination processes
• Digestion
• Excretion
Life processes
Life processes are the basic processes in living organisms which are necessary for
maintaining their life. The basic life processes are – nutrition, respiration,
transportation, and excretion.

i) Nutrition :– is the process of taking food by an organism and its utilization by

the body for life processes.
ii) Respiration :– is the process by which food is burnt in the cells of the body with
the help of oxygen to release energy.
iii) Transportation :– is the process by which food, oxygen, water, waste products
are carried from one part of the body to the other
iv) Excretion :- is the process by which waste products are removed from the body.
Q1. Why is diffusion insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of
multicellular organisms like humans
Answer:
In multicellular organisms like humans, all the body cells are not in direct contact
with the surrounding environment. Therefore, every cell of the body will not get
oxygen as per need by the process of diffusion from the environment. Therefore,
diffusion is insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of multicellular organisms.

Q2. What criteria do we use to decide whether something is alive ?

Answer:
The main criteria used to decide whether something is alive are breathing and
respiration. However, living beings also show growth and movement.
Q3. What are outside raw materials used by an organism ?
Answer:
Any organism uses organic molecules as raw material. Heterotrophs use food and
autotrophs use carbon dioxide, minerals, water and all organisms use oxygen (for
respiration) as raw materials.

Q4. What processes would you consider essential for maintaining life ?
Answer:
Processes essential for maintaining life are :
(i) Nutrition
(ii) Respiration
(iii) Transportation
(iv) Excretion
NUTRITION
NUTRITION
Nutrition is the process of taking food by an organism and its utilisation by the body
to build the body, for growth, to repair the damaged parts of the body and for
energy.
• Life on earth depends on carbon-based molecules and most of the food are also
carbon-based molecules. The outside raw materials used by living organisms are
food, water and air.
Photosynthesis
Autotrophic
nutrition
Chemosynthesis
Modes of nutrition
Heterotrophic Saprophytic
nutrition nutrition

Parasitic nutrition

Holozoic nutrition
Modes of nutrition

There are two main modes of nutrition. They are autotrophic nutrition and
heterotrophic nutrition.

i) Autotrophic nutrition :- is nutrition in which organisms prepare their own food

from simple inorganic substances like carbon dioxide and water in the presence of
sunlight and chlorophyll.

Eg :- all green plants and some bacteria.

ii) Heterotrophic nutrition :- is nutrition in which organisms get their food directly
or indirectly from plants.
Eg :- all animals fungi and some bacteria.
Types of heterotrophic nutrition
There are three main types of heterotrophic nutrition. They are saprophytic, parasitic and holozoic
nutrition.
a. Saprophytic nutrition :- is nutrition in which organisms get their food from dead and decaying
organisms. They break down the food material outside their body and then absorbs it. Eg :-
mushroom, bread mold, yeast, some bacteria etc.
b. Parasitic nutrition :- is nutrition in which organisms get their food from living organisms (host)
without killing them. Eg :- Cuscuta, orchids, ticks, lice, leeches, round worm, tape worm, plasmodium
etc.
c. Holozoic nutrition :- is nutrition in which organisms take food directly and then digests and
absorbs it. Eg :- amoeba, paramaecium, birds, fishes, humans etc.
NUTRITION IN PLANTS

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants prepare food by using carbon

dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. The food prepared is
carbohydrate which is stored in the form of starch. Oxygen is released in this
process.
Equation of photosynthesis

Photosynthesis takes place in three main steps. They are :

i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
ii) Conversion of light energy into chemical energy and splitting up of water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen.
iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide by hydrogen to form carbohydrates
Chlorophyll :- are the green pigments present in the leaves. If we observe a cross
section of a leaf under a microscope, we can see cells containing green dot like
structures called chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll.

Stomata :- are tiny pores present in the leaves through which exchange of gases
takes place. Each stoma has a pair of guard cells which controls the opening and
closing of the stomatal pore. When water enters the guard cells, it swells and the
pore opens and when the guard cells lose water, it shrinks and the pore closes.
Activity 1

To show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis :-

1. Take a potted plant having variegated leaves (croton plant).
2. Keep it in a dark room for three days so that all the starch is used up.
3. Then keep it in sunlight for 6 hours.
4. Then take a leaf from the plant and mark the green areas of the leaf on a sheet of paper.
5. Then dip the leaf in boiling water to make it soft.
6. Then dip the leaf in alcohol and heat it in a water bath to decolourise it and remove the
chlorophyll.
7. Then wash the leaf in water and dip it in dilute iodine solution.
8. It will be seen that only the green parts of the leaf turns blue black. This shows that chlorophyll is
necessary for photosynthesis.
Activity 2

To show that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis :-

1. Take two potted plants of the same size and keep them in a dark room for three days so that all
the starch is used up.
2. Then keep the plants on separate glass plates.
3. Keep a watch glass containing some potassium hydroxide near one plant to absorb carbon
dioxide.
4. Cover both the plants with bell jars and seal the bottom of the jars with vaseline to make it air
tight.
5. Keep the plants in sunlight for three hours.
6. Then take a leaf from each plant and test for starch.
7. The leaf of the plant kept in the jar containing potassium hydroxide does not show the presence
of starch. This shows that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.
NUTRITION IN ANIMALS

Nutrition in amoeba
• Amoeba is a unicellular animal living in water.
• It takes in food by forming finger like projections called pseudopodia and forms a
food vacuole.
• Inside the food vacuole the food is digested and absorbed.
• The undigested food is then sent out through the surface of the cell.
PHAGOCYTOSIS
Nutrition in Human beings
• Nutrition in human beings takes place in the
digestive system.
• It consists of the alimentary canal and glands
which produce enzymes which breaks down
food into smaller molecules.
• The main organs of the digestive system are
mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine,
large intestine, and anus.
• The main glands are salivary glands, gastric
glands, liver, pancreas and intestinal glands.
In the mouth
• The food is broken down into smaller particles by the teeth and mixed with saliva
from the salivary glands.
• Saliva contains the enzyme salivary amylase which converts starch into sugar.
• Then the food passes through the oesophagus into the stomach.

In the stomach
• The gastric glands produce gastric juice which contains the enzyme pepsin,
hydrochloric acid and mucous.
• Pepsin breaks down proteins.
• Hydrochloric acid makes the medium acidic and helps in the action of pepsin.
• Mucous protects the walls of the stomach from the action of the acid.
• Then the food passes into the small intestine.
In the upper part of the small intestine called duodenum
• The food is mixed with bile from liver and pancreatic juice from the pancreas.
• Bile breaks down fats into smaller globules.
• Pancreatic juice contains the enzymes trypsin and lipase.
• Trypsin breaks down proteins and lipase breaks down fats.

In the small intestine

• The glands the walls of the small intestine produces intestinal juice.
• The enzymes of the intestinal juice coverts carbohydrates into glucose, fats into
fatty acids and glycerol and proteins into amino acids.
• The walls of the small intestine has several fingers like projections called villi
having blood vessels. It helps to increase the surface area for the absorption of
digested food.
• The digested food is absorbed by the blood and transported to all cells in the
body. Then the undigested food passes into the large intestine.
1. What are the differences between autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic
nutrition?

2. Where do plants get each of the raw materials required for photosynthesis?
Ans: Plants require the following raw material for photosynthesis:
i. CO2 is obtained from the atmosphere through stomata
ii. Water is absorbed by plant roots from the soil.
iii. Sunlight is an essential raw material for photosynthesis
3. What is the role of the acid in our stomach?
Ans: HCl present in the stomach dissolves food particles and creates an acidic medium. In
an acidic environment, protein-digesting enzymes, pepsinogen, are converted into pepsin.
HCl in the stomach also acts as a protective barrier against many disease-causing
pathogens.

4. What is the function of digestive enzymes?

Ans: Digestive enzymes break complex food molecules into simpler ones. This will make
the food absorption process easy and effective. Absorbed food is transported to all parts of
the body by the blood.

5. How is the small intestine designed to absorb digested food?

Ans: The small intestine has small projections called microvilli, which increase the surface
volume, making the absorption more effective. Within the villi, there are numerous blood
vessels that absorb digested food and carry it to the bloodstream. Blood transports food to
each part of our body.
RESPIRATION
RESPIRATION

• Respiration is the process by which food is burnt in the cells of the body with
the help of oxygen to release energy.

Respiration involves
Gaseous exchange Breakdown of food
Intake of atmospheric Release of energy from
oxygen and release of oxidation of simple food
carbondioxide molecules like glucose
• It takes place in the mitochondria of the cells. T
• The energy released during respiration is used to make ATP molecules
(Adenosine tri phosphate) from ADP molecules (Adenosine di phosphate) and
inorganic phosphate.
Energy
ADP + Phosphate ATP

• Energy is stored in the cells in the form of ATP molecules.

• When the cells need energy, ATP is broken down in the presence of water to
form ADP and energy is released.
Water
ATP ADP+ Energy
Types of respiration
There are two main types of respiration. They are aerobic and anaerobic
respiration.

i) Aerobic respiration
• Takes place in the presence of oxygen. It produces more energy. The end
products are carbon dioxide, water and energy. It takes place in most
organisms.
• In aerobic respiration, glucose is converted into pyruvate in the cytoplasm in
the presence of oxygen and then in the presence of oxygen, pyruvate is
converted into carbon dioxide, water and energy in the mitochondria.
ii) Anaerobic respiration
• Takes place in the absence of oxygen.
• It produces less energy.
• The end products are lactic acid or ethanol, carbon dioxide, and energy.
• It takes place in muscle cells and yeast.
• In anaerobic respiration in muscle cells, glucose is converted into pyruvate
and in the absence of oxygen pyruvate is converted into lactic acid and
energy.

• In anaerobic respiration in yeast, glucose is converted into pyruvate and in

the absence of oxygen pyruvate is converted into ethanol, carbondioxide and
energy. This process is called fermentation.
Breakdown of Glucose by different pathways
Respiration in Humans

The main organs of the respiratory system are

• Nostrils
• Nasal cavity
• Pharynx
• Larynx
• Trachea
• Bronchi
• Bronchioles
• Lungs
• Diaphragm
• Air enter through the nostrils.
• The hairs and mucous traps the dust
particles.
• It then passes through the pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi and enters the lungs.
• The trachea has rings of cartilage which
prevents it from collapsing when there is
no air in the trachea.
• The bronchi divides into smaller tubes
called bronchioles which ends in tiny air
sacs called alveoli.
• The alveoli is supplied with blood vessels
through which exchange of gases takes
place.
• The alveoli helps to increase the surface
area for the exchange of gases.
Mechanism of breathing

Inhalation
• When we breathe in air, the muscles
of the diaphragm contracts and
moves downward and the chest
cavity expands and air enters into the
lungs.

Exhalation
• When we breathe out air, the muscles
of the diaphragm relaxes and moves
upward and the chest cavity contracts
and air goes out of the lungs.
1. What advantage over an aquatic organism does a terrestrial organism have with regard to
obtaining oxygen for respiration?
Ans: Terrestrial organisms breathe by using atmospheric oxygen, whereas aquatic organisms take
oxygen dissolved in water. The oxygen level is high in the atmosphere when compared to oxygen in
the water. Hence, terrestrial organisms need not breathe fast to obtain organisms, whereas aquatic
organisms need to breathe faster to get the required oxygen.

2. What are the different ways in which glucose is oxidised to provide energy in various
organisms?
Ans: In the cytoplasm, Glucose is first broken down into two 3 carbon compounds called pyruvate
by the process known as Glycolysis. Further breakdown takes place in different organisms by
different processes.
3. How are oxygen and carbon dioxide transported in human beings?
Ans: Oxygen and Carbon dioxide are transported in human beings via the bloodstream. Oxygen is
carried to the cells, whereas carbon dioxide is carried away from the cells. The exchange of gases
takes place between the alveoli of the lungs and the surrounding blood capillaries. Oxygen is
absorbed by the blood capillaries from the lungs’ alveoli by diffusion, while carbon dioxide is
absorbed by the lungs’ alveoli from the blood capillaries by diffusion.

4. How are the lungs designed in human beings to maximise the area for the exchange of
gases?
Ans: The lungs are an important part of the body. The passage inside the lungs divides into smaller
and smaller tubes, which finally terminate in balloon-like structures called alveoli.
The alveoli provide a surface where the exchange of gases can take place. The walls of the alveoli
usually contain an extensive network of blood vessels. We know that when we breathe in, we lift our
ribs, flatten our diaphragm and the chest cavity becomes larger.
Because of this action, the air is sucked into the lungs and fills up the expanded alveoli.
The blood brings the essential carbon dioxide from the rest of the body and supplies it to the alveoli;
the oxygen in the alveolar air is taken up by the blood in the alveolar blood vessels to be transported
to all other cells of the body. During the normal breathing cycle, when air is taken in and let out, the
lungs always contain a residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be
absorbed and carbon dioxide to be released.
TRANSPORTATION
Transportation in Human being
The main transport system in human beings is the circulatory system. It consists of
Blood, Arteries, Capillaries and Heart

1. Blood
•Red blood
cells (RBC)
•Transports
oxygen.

•White
•Plasma BLOOD blood cells
• Transports Transports (WBC)
food, water, food, oxygen
carbon dioxide, •Kills harmful
nitrogenous and waste microbes and
waste etc. products. protects the
body.

•Platelets
help in clotting
of blood and
prevents loss of
blood during
injury.
2. Arteries
• Carry pure blood from the heart to all parts of the body.
• They are thick walled and do not have valves.

3. Veins
• Carry impure blood from all parts of the body to the heart.
• They are thin walled and have valves.

4. Capillaries
• They are very narrow blood vessels which connects arteries and veins
together.
• The exchange of food, water, oxygen, carbon dioxide etc. between the blood
and cells take place through the capillaries.

5. Heart
• Pumps blood to all parts of the body.
HEART
• It is a muscular organ which pumps
blood to all parts of the body.
• It has four chambers.
• The upper chambers are called atria
and the lower chambers are called
ventricles.
• Since the ventricles pump blood to the
different organs its walls are thicker
than the atria.
• The right and left chambers are
separated by a septum. It prevents the
mixing of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood.
• The atria and ventricles have valves
between them to prevent blood flowing
backward.
Types of Circulatory Systems
Broadly, animals have two main types of circulatory systems:

1. Open Circulatory System: Blood is not always enclosed within vessels; it flows
through body cavities, bathing the organs directly.

2. Closed Circulatory System: Blood flows through a network of vessels, keeping

it separate from other body fluids.

• Single Circulation: Seen in most fish, blood flows through the heart once in
each complete cycle.
• Double Circulation: Seen in humans, birds, and most mammals, blood
passes through the heart twice per cycle.
Working of the heart ( Circulation of blood )

• When the left atrium relaxes oxygenated blood from the lungs flows into it through
the pulmonary vein.
• When it contracts, the left ventricle expands and the blood flows into it.
• Then the left ventricle contracts and the oxygenated blood is pumped out through the
aorta to all parts of the body.
• After circulating through all parts of the body the deoxygenated blood enters the right
atrium through the vena cava.
• When the right atrium contracts, the right ventricle expands and the blood flows into
it.
• Then the right ventricle contracts and the blood is pumped to the lungs through the
pulmonary artery.
• In the lungs carbon dioxide is removed and oxygen is absorbed and the oxygenated
blood again enters the left atrium and the process repeats.

Since blood flows through the heart twice in one cycle, it is called double
circulation.
DOUBLE CIRCULATION IN HUMAN

1. Pulmonary Circulation: Carries

deoxygenated blood from the right side of the
heart to the lungs for oxygenation, then
returns oxygen-rich blood to the left side of
the heart.

2. Systemic Circulation: Transports

oxygenated blood from the left side of the
heart to all body tissues and brings
deoxygenated blood back to the right side of
the heart.
Lymph

• It is a colourless fluid present in intercellular spaces.

• It is formed from the plasma which escapes from the capillaries.
• Lymph drains into lymphatic capillaries which forms lymph vessels and joins into
large veins.
• Lymph transports digested fats and drains excess fluids from intercellular spaces
back into the blood.
• It contains lymphocytes which kills germs and protects the body.
Hearts of mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, and fishes
i) The heart in mammals
• Birds have four chambers and the right and left sides of the heart is separated
by a septum.
• This prevents mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood and provides
efficient supply of oxygen.
• This is necessary because they need more energy to maintain their body
temperature.

ii) The heart in amphibians and reptiles

• Have three chambers and allows some mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood because the do not use energy to maintain their body temperature.
• Their body temperature is the same as the temperature of the surroundings.

iii) The heart in fishes

• Have only two chambers and blood is oxygenated in the gills.
Transportation in plants
• In plants, transportation of materials like food, water and minerals takes place
through conducting tissues called xylem and phloem.

1. Xylem
• Transports water and minerals from the roots to all parts of the plant.
• It consists of xylem vessels and tracheids.
• Water and minerals enter the roots by diffusion.
• Then due to transpiration, the suction force helps in the upward movement of
water an minerals.
2. Phloem
• Transports food from the leaves to the other parts of the plant.
• This process is called translocation.
• The phloem consists of sieve tubes and companion cells.
• Food from the leaves is transferred to the xylem by the energy of ATP molecules.
• Due to osmotic pressure water enters the phloem and helps in the transport of
food.
1. What are the components of the transport system in human beings? What are the
functions of these components?
Ans: The heart, blood and blood vessels are the main components of the transport system in human
beings.
Functions of these components
Heart
The heart pumps oxygenated blood throughout the body. It receives deoxygenated blood from the
various body parts and sends impure blood to the lungs for oxygenation.
Blood
Blood transports oxygen, nutrients, CO2, and nitrogenous wastes.
Blood vessels
Blood vessels, arteries and veins carry blood to all parts of the body.

2. Why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in mammals and

birds?
Ans: Mammals and birds are warm-blooded animals which keep their body temperature constant
irrespective of the environment they live. This process requires a lot of oxygen for more cellular
respiration so that warm-blooded animals produce more energy to balance their body temperature.
Hence, it is very important for warm-blooded animals to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood to keep their circulatory system efficient.
3. What are the components of the transport system in highly organised plants?
Ans: There are two types of conducting tissues in highly organised plants that carry out the transport
system 1) Xylem- Xylem conduct water and minerals from roots to the rest of the plant parts.
2) Phloem-Phloem transports food materials from the leaf to other parts of the plant.

4. How are water and minerals transported in plants?

Ans: Xylem parts of the tracheids and vessels of roots, stems and leaves are interconnected to form
a continuous system of water-conducting channels that reaches all parts of the plant. Transpiration
creates a suction pressure which forces water into the xylem cells of roots. After this, there will be a
steady movement of water from the root xylem to all parts of the plant connected through conducting
interconnected water-conducting channels.

5. How is food transported in plants?

Ans: Food is transported in plants by a special organ called the phloem. Phloem transports food
materials from leaves to different parts of a plant. Transportation of food in phloem is achieved by
the expenditure of energy from ATP. This increases osmotic pressure in the tissue, causing water to
move. This pressure moves material in the Phloem to the tissues with less pressure. This helps in
the transportation of food materials as per the needs. Example, Sucrose
EXCRETION
Excretion
• Excretion is the process by which the waste products produced during metabolic
activities is removed from the body.
• In unicellular organism the waste products are removed from the cells into the
surroundings by diffusion.
• In multicellular organisms the waste prducts are removed through specialised
organs.
Excretion in Human beings

• The excretory system consists of a pair of

kidneys , a pair of ureters, urinary bladder
and urethra.
• Each kidney has a number of excretory
units called nephrons.
Nephron
• Each nephron has a cuplike structure called Bowman’s capsule containing a
bundle of capillaries called glomerulus.
• The Bowman’s capsule leads into a tubular structure which joins into a collecting
duct.
• The renal artery brings the nitrogenous waste like ammonia, urea, uric acid
(urine) along with excess water, salts etc. into the nephron.
• It filters the nitrogenous waste, water and salts which passes through the tubular
structure into the collecting duct.
• The waste then passes through the ureters into the urinary bladder and is then
sent out through the urethra as urine.
• The useful products like amino acids, glucose, salts etc. are reabsorbed by the
capillaries around the tubular structure and goes into the real vein.
Excretion in plants

• In plants the gaseous waste products produced during respiration (CO2) and
photosynthesis (O2) are removed through the stomata.
• Excess water is removed through the stomata. This process is called
transpiration.
• Some waste products are stored in the leaves and removed when the leaves dry
and fall off.
• Some waste products are stored in vacuoles.
• Some waste products like gums and resins are stored in the old xylem cells.
• Some waste products are removed through the roots
1. Describe the structure and functioning of nephrons.
Ans: Nephrons are the filtration units of the kidney, which are large in numbers. Some substances in the initial
filtrate, such as glucose, amino acids, salts and a major amount of water, are selectively re-absorbed as the
urine flows along the tube.
The main components of Nephrons are
Glomerulus
Bowman’s Capsule
Long Renal Tube
Structure of Nephron

Functioning of Nephron
The blood enters the kidney through the renal artery, which branches into many capillaries associated with the
glomerulus.
The water and solute are transferred to the nephron at Bowman’s capsule.
In the proximal tubule, substances such as amino acids, glucose, and salts are selectively reabsorbed, and
unwanted molecules are added to the urine.
The filtrate then moves down into the loop of Henle, where more water is absorbed. From here, the filtrate
moves upwards into the distal tubule and finally to the collecting duct. The collecting duct collects urine from
many nephrons.
The urine formed in each kidney enters a long tube called the ureter. From the ureter, it gets transported to the
urinary bladder and then into the urethra.
2. What are the methods used by plants to get rid of excretory products?
Ans: Plants can get rid of excess water by transpiration.
For other wastes, plants use the fact that many of their tissues consist of dead cells and that they can even lose
some parts, such as leaves. Many plant waste products are stored in cellular vacuoles. Waste products may be
stored in leaves that fall off.
Other waste products are stored as resins and gums, especially in old xylem. Plants also excrete some waste
substances into the soil around them.
3. How is the amount of urine produced regulated?
Ans: The amount of urine produced depends on the amount of excess water and dissolved waste present in
the body. Other factors may be the environment and the ADH hormone, which regulates the production of urine.
1. The kidneys in human beings are a part of the system for
(a) nutrition
(b) respiration
(c) excretion
(d) transportation
Solution:
The answer is (c) excretion
The excretory system of human beings (Fig. 6.13) includes a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a urinary bladder
and a urethra. Kidneys are located in the abdomen, one on either side of the backbone. Urine produced in the
kidneys passes through the ureters into the urinary bladder, where it is stored until it is released through the
urethra.

2. The xylem in plants is responsible for

(a) transport of water
(b) transport of food
(c) transport of amino acids
(d) transport of oxygen
Solution:
In plants, the Xylem is responsible for the transport of water. Hence, the answer is (a)
3. The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires
(a) carbon dioxide and water
(b) chlorophyll
(c) sunlight
(d) all of the above
Ans: The autotrophic mode of nutrition requires carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll and sunlight from the
preparation of food. Hence, the answer is (d) all of the above.

4. The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water, and energy takes place in
(a) cytoplasm.
(b) mitochondria
(c) chloroplast
(d) nucleus
Ans: The breakdown of pyruvate to give carbon dioxide, water and energy take place in mitochondria. Hence,
the answer is (b) mitochondria
5. How are fats digested in our bodies? Where does this process take place?
Ans: The small intestine is the place for the complete digestion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. It receives
the secretions of the liver and pancreas for this purpose.
The food coming from the stomach is usually acidic in nature, and it has to be made alkaline so that pancreatic
enzymes can act on it. Bile juice produced in the liver accomplishes this process.
Fats are usually present in the intestine in the form of larger globules, which makes it difficult for enzymes to act
on them. The bile salts help in breaking down larger globules into smaller globules. The pancreas helps in
secreting pancreatic juice, which contains enzymes like trypsin for digesting proteins and lipase for breaking
down emulsified fats.
The walls of the small intestine contain glands, which secrete intestinal juice. The enzymes present in it finally
convert the proteins to amino acids, complex carbohydrates into glucose and finally, fats into fatty acids and
glycerol.

6. What is the role of saliva in the digestion of food?

Ans: The food we intake is complex in nature; if it is to be absorbed from the alimentary canal, then it has to be
broken into smaller molecules. This process is mainly done with the help of biological catalysts called enzymes.
The saliva contains an enzyme called salivary amylase that breaks down starch, which is a complex molecule
to give sugar. The food is mixed thoroughly with saliva and moved around the mouth while chewing the
muscular tongue. Hence, saliva plays a pivotal role in the digestion and absorption of food.
7. What are the necessary conditions for autotrophic nutrition, and what are its byproducts?
Ans: The energy and carbon requirements of the autotrophic organism are obtained by the process of
photosynthesis.
It is defined as the process by which autotrophs take in substances from the outside surroundings and convert
them into stored forms of energy.
This substance is taken in the form of carbon dioxide and water, which are converted into carbohydrates in the
presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
The main purpose of carbohydrates is to provide energy to the plant. The carbohydrates are not utilised
immediately, but they are stored in the form of starch, which serves as an internal energy reserve.
The stored energy can be used as and when required by the plant.

8. What are the differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration? Name some organisms that use
the anaerobic mode of respiration.
Ans: Aerobic respiration
The process takes place in the presence of free oxygen.
The products of aerobic respiration are CO2, water and energy.
The first step of aerobic respiration (glycolysis) takes place in the cytoplasm, while the next step takes place in
mitochondria.
The process of aerobic respiration takes place in all higher organisms.
In this process, complete oxidation of glucose takes place.
Anaerobic respiration
The process takes place in the absence of free oxygen.
The products of anaerobic respiration are ethyl alcohol, CO2 and a little energy.
Even in anaerobic respiration, the first step takes place in the cytoplasm, while the next step takes place in
mitochondria.
In this process, the glucose molecules are incompletely broken down.
The process of anaerobic respiration takes place in lower organisms like yeast, some species of bacteria and
parasites like tapeworms.

9. How are the alveoli designed to maximise the exchange of gases?

Ans: The lung is an important part of the body. The passage inside the lungs divides into smaller and smaller
tubes, which finally terminate in balloon-like structures called alveoli.
The alveoli provide a surface where the exchange of gases can take place. The walls of the alveoli usually
contain an extensive network of blood vessels. We know that when we breathe in, we lift our ribs, flatten our
diaphragm and the chest cavity becomes larger.
Because of this action, the air is sucked into the lungs and fills up the expanded alveoli.
The blood brings the essential carbon dioxide from the rest of the body and supplies it to the alveoli; the oxygen
in the alveolar air is taken up by the blood in the alveolar blood vessels to be transported to all other cells of the
body. During the normal breathing cycle, when air is taken in and let out, the lungs always contain a residual
volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and carbon dioxide to be released.
10. What would be the consequences of a deficiency of haemoglobin in our bodies?
Ans: Haemoglobin is a protein responsible for the transportation of oxygen to the body cells for cellular
respiration. A deficiency of Haemoglobin can affect the oxygen-carrying capacity of RBCs. This lead to a lack of
oxygen in our body cells. Haemoglobin deficiency leads to a disease called anaemia.

11. Describe the double circulation of blood in human beings. Why is it necessary?
Ans: Double circulation means, in a single cycle, blood goes twice in the heart. The process helps in separating
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood to maintain a constant body temperature.
The double circulatory system of blood includes
Pulmonary circulation
Systemic circulation.
Pulmonary circulation
The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood into the lungs, where it is oxygenated. The oxygenated blood is
brought back to the left atrium, and from there, it is pumped into the left ventricle. Finally, blood goes into the
aorta for systemic circulation.
Systemic circulation
The oxygenated blood is pumped to various parts of the body from the left ventricle. The deoxygenated blood
from different parts of the body passes through the vena cava to reach the right atrium. The right atrium
transfers the blood into the right ventricle.
12. What are the differences between the transport of materials in the xylem and phloem?

13. Compare the functioning of alveoli in the lungs and nephrons in the kidneys with respect to their
structure and functioning.
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