Module 3 English for Employability

What is a Paragraph?

A paragraph is a group of sentences that develops and supports a single, central idea. It is the
basic unit of composition in writing, providing both unity (focus on one idea) and coherence
(logical flow between sentences).

Components of a Paragraph

A well-constructed paragraph typically has three main components:

●​ Topic Sentence: This is usually the first sentence that states the main idea and the
controlling idea (the specific focus) of the entire paragraph.
●​ Supporting Sentences: These sentences make up the body of the paragraph. They
develop, explain, prove, or illustrate the main idea using evidence, examples, facts, or
details.
●​ Concluding/Transitional Sentence: This sentence brings the paragraph to a close. It
often restates the main idea or summarizes the points made, and can serve to transition the
reader to the next paragraph.

Types of Paragraphs

Paragraphs are categorized based on their primary purpose in communicating an idea:

●​ Narrative Paragraph: Its purpose is to tell a story or recount a sequence of events,

usually arranged in chronological order.
●​ Descriptive Paragraph: Its purpose is to describe a subject (person, place, thing) using
vivid sensory details and imagery so the reader can visualize it.
●​ Expository Paragraph: Its purpose is to inform, explain, define, or clarify a topic in an
objective manner, relying on facts and logical presentation.
●​ Persuasive/Argumentative Paragraph: Its purpose is to convince the reader to agree
with a specific claim or position, using strong reasoning and evidence.

Formal Letter
Definition: A formal letter is a professional piece of correspondence written for official purposes,
such as communicating with businesses, institutions, or government departments. It follows a
strict, conventional format and maintains a polite, objective, and respectful tone.
Key Characteristics:

●​ Uses formal and polite language (no slang or contractions).

●​ Follows a specific structure.
●​ Focuses on a single main purpose.
●​ The tone is serious and impersonal
Following is the list of different types of letters

Business and Transactional Letter: These types are used for communication between
businesses, vendors, and clients:

●​ Letter of Enquiry: Used to ask for specific information about products, services, terms, or
conditions before a purchase or agreement.
●​ Order Letter: Used to formally place a request for goods or services after an agreement or
quotation has been reached.
●​ Complaint Letter (or Claim Letter): Used to formally express dissatisfaction about a
product, service, or issue and request a specific remedy (e.g., refund, replacement,
correction).

Employment and Career Letters: These are crucial for professional communication related to
jobs and career progression:

●​ Cover Letter (or Job Application Letter): Sent with a resume or curriculum vitae (CV) to
express interest in a specific job and highlight qualifications.
●​ Letter of Recommendation: Written by a former employer or colleague to attest to an
individual's character, skills, or qualifications.
●​ Resignation Letter: Formally informs an employer of the employee's decision to leave the
job, including the last date of employment.
●​ Acceptance/Offer Letter: Sent by an employer to formally offer a job, or sent by a
candidate to formally accept a job offer.
●​ Promotion Letter: Used to inform an employee that they have been moved to a higher
position with increased responsibility and pay.

Official and Administrative Letter: These are generally directed toward institutions, government
agencies, or authorities:

●​ Request Letter: A general term for a letter that asks a formal authority (e.g., a Principal,
Bank Manager, or Government Official) for a specific action (e.g., bank statement, address
change, permission).

●​ Leave Application: Sent to an employer or educational institution requesting time off for
reasons like sickness, vacation, or personal matters.
●​ Formal Invitation Letter: Used to formally invite guests to an official event, meeting, or
conference.
●​ Official Correspondence: General term for letters used for internal or external
communication between government departments or large organizations.

The basic structure is the same for all three types of letters.

1.​ Sender's Address: Your full address (top right or left).

2.​ Date: Written formally (e.g., November 11, 2025).
3.​ Receiver's Address: The recipient's full address (left side).
4.​ Salutation: Formal greeting (e.g., Dear Sir/Madam or Dear Mr./Ms. [Last Name]).
5.​ Subject Line: A concise statement of the letter's purpose (crucial for quick sorting).
6.​ Body Paragraphs: Introduction, main point(s), and conclusion.
7.​ Complimentary Close: A polite closing phrase (e.g., Yours faithfully or Yours
sincerely).
8.​ Signature and Typed Name/Designation
 Sample cover letter

Sarah Jenkins 11 November, 2025

45 Oak Street New York,
NY 10001 (555) 123-4567
[Link]@[Link]

Ms. Evelyn Reed

Marketing Director InnovateTech Solutions
789 Corporate Blvd.
New York, NY 10005

Dear Ms. Reed,

Subject: Application for the Marketing Assistant Position (Reference #IT-402)

I am writing to apply for the Marketing Assistant position at InnovateTech Solutions, as

advertised on The Career Hub website. Having closely followed your brand’s innovative approach
to digital campaigns, I am confident that my proven track record in content and data analysis
aligns well with this position.

My previous role at CreativeLink Agency allowed me to develop three highly relevant skills: social
media strategy, data-driven reporting, and cross-functional coordination. I am proficient in
using tools like Google Analytics and HubSpot to transform raw campaign data into actionable
insights.

I am genuinely motivated by InnovateTech's mission to integrate technology with sustainability,

and I am eager to apply my technical and creative skills to further your team's success. My resume
is attached for your review. I request an opportunity for an interview to discuss how my
experience can contribute to your marketing department.

Thank you

Sincerely,

Sarah Jenkins
Email Etiquette: Rules for Professionalism

●​ Subject Line: Must be clear, concise, and informative. Use keywords so the recipient
can prioritize the message.
●​ Salutation & Sign-off: Always use a professional greeting (e.g., "Dear Ms. Smith") and a
proper closing (e.g., "Regards," "Sincerely").
●​ Tone: Maintain a professional, respectful, and courteous tone. Avoid excessive slang,
text-speak, or emojis in formal settings.
●​ Conciseness: Get straight to the point. Respect the recipient's time by keeping the body
text focused.
●​ Attachments: Always mention attachments in the email body. Double-check the file size
before sending.
●​ CC (Carbon Copy): Use this to keep someone informed about the email's content. All
recipients can see who is CC'd.
●​ BCC (Blind Carbon Copy): Use this to send a copy to someone without letting the other
recipients know they received it. It is primarily used to protect the privacy of mass email
lists.
●​ Writing an Email:Clearly state the Purpose or Call to Action (CTA) in the first paragraph.
Use short paragraphs and bullet points to increase readability.

Responding to an Email: Acknowledge receipt promptly. If you need time, send a brief note
saying you'll respond fully later. Quote only the necessary parts of the original email to provide
context for your response.

●​ Reply All vs. Reply: Be judicious. Use "Reply All" only if your response is relevant to
everyone on the original recipient list. Otherwise, use "Reply" to minimize inbox clutter.
●​ Proofread rigorously before hitting send.

What are Verb tenses?

Verb tenses are changes or additions to verbs to show when the action took place: in the past,
present, or future. The phrase verb tense is also used for grammatical aspects, which add more
details about the duration or time an action takes. When you combine the four grammatical
aspects with the past, present and future, you end up with twelve main verb tenses in English.

A. The "Be" Helpers (am, is, are, was, were, being, been):

These forms of "be" are versatile helpers with several key functions:

Forming Continuous (Progressive) Tenses: They team up with the present participle (-ing form)
of the main verb to show an action that is ongoing or was ongoing at a specific time.

●​ Present Continuous: "She is studying for her exam." (Action happening now)
●​ Past Continuous: "They were watching a movie when I called." (Action ongoing in
the past)
●​ Future Continuous: "He will be traveling next week." (Action will be ongoing in the
future)
●​ Present Perfect Continuous: "I have been waiting for an hour." (Action started in the
past and is still ongoing)
●​ Past Perfect Continuous: "She had been working all night." (Action was ongoing
before another past action)
B. The "Have" Helpers (have, has, had, having):

These forms of "have" are primarily used to create perfect tenses, which indicate completed
actions or actions with a connection to a later time.

Forming Perfect Tenses: They combine with the past participle of the main verb.

Present Perfect: "They have finished their dinner." (Action completed recently or has
relevance now)
Past Perfect: "He had left before we arrived." (Action completed before another past
action)
Future Perfect: "She will have completed the project by Friday." (Action will be completed
by a specific time in the future)
Perfect Continuous Tenses: Used with "been" and the present participle to emphasize the
duration of an action leading up to a certain time (as seen with "be" helpers). "I have been
studying."

[Link] "Do" Helpers (do, does, did, doing):

These forms of "do" have specific roles in constructing questions, negative statements, and adding
emphasis in the simple present and simple past tenses.

Forming Questions:​

"Do you like coffee?" (Simple Present with "you," "we," "they," "I")
"Does he play the guitar?" (Simple Present with "he," "she," "it")
"Did they go to the park?" (Simple Past with all subjects)

Forming Negative Statements: They are used with "not" (often contracted as "n't").​

"I do not (don't) understand." (Simple Present)

"She does not (doesn't) want to leave." (Simple Present)
"They did not (didn't) see the accident." (Simple Past)

Adding Emphasis: "Do," "does," and "did" can be placed before the base form of the main verb in
affirmative sentences to add emphasis.​

"I do want to help you." (Emphasizes the desire to help)

"He does care about the environment." (Emphasizes his care)
"She did call you yesterday." (Emphasizes that the call happened)

4. Modal Auxiliary Verbs (can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must, ought to):

These are a special group of helping verbs that express a speaker's attitude or opinion about the
likelihood, ability, permission, obligation, etc., related to the main verb.

●​ can/could: Express ability ("I can swim"), possibility ("It could rain"), or polite requests
("Could you help me?").
●​ may/might: Express possibility ("She may go to the party"), or polite permission ("May I
ask a question?"). "Might" often suggests a weaker possibility.
●​ will/would: Express future actions ("I will call you later"), conditional situations ("If I had
time, I would travel"), or polite requests ("Would you mind closing the door?").
 ●​ shall/should: "Shall" is sometimes used for offers or suggestions ("Shall we go?").
"Should" expresses advice or obligation ("You should eat healthy food"). "Ought to" has a
similar meaning to "should."
●​ must: Expresses strong obligation or necessity ("You must wear a seatbelt") or strong
certainty ("That must be him").

Direct to indirect speech or Reported speech

When the reporting verb is in the past tense, the tense of the verb in the reported clause often
undergoes a process called backshifting. This involves shifting the verb tense one step back
in time (e.g., present simple to past simple, present continuous to past continuous, present
perfect to past perfect, past simple to past perfect).

Direct Speech Tense Reported Speech Tense

Present Simple Past Simple

"I like ice cream" She said she liked ice
cream.

Present Continuous Past Continuous

"I am living in London She said she was living
in London.

Past Simple Past Perfect

I bought a car She said she had bought
a car.

Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous

I was walking She said she had been
walking.

Present Perfect Past Perfect

"I haven't seen Julie She said she hadn't seen
Julie

Past Perfect Past Perfect

I had taken lessons She said she had taken
lessons.

Future Simple (will) Conditional (would)

I will see you She said she would see
me.
 Conditional (would) Conditional (would)
"I would help She said she would help.

Can Could
I can speak English She said she could speak
English.

Could Could
I could swim She said she could swim.

Shall Would
I shall come She said she would
come.

Should Should
I should call She said she should call

Might Might
I might be late She said she might be
late.

Must Must / Had to

I must study She said she must/had to
study.

Modal verbs such as might, could, would, should, and ought to generally remain
unchanged in reported speech.

Pronoun changes are also a critical aspect of transforming direct speech to reported speech.
These changes reflect the shift in perspective between the original speaker and the person
reporting the speech. First-person pronouns (I, me, my, mine, we, us, our, ours) typically
change to third-person pronouns (he/she, him/her, his/her, his/hers, they, them, their, theirs)
depending on the gender and number of the original speaker. Second-person pronouns
(you, your, yours) can change to first, second, or third person depending on who the
original "you" refers to in the context of the reported speech. The specific pronoun used in
reported speech depends on the perspective of the reporter and the audience.

Direct Speech Reported Speech Example

Pronoun(s) Pronoun(s)
 I, Me, My, Mine He/She, Him/Her, "I like my car" -> He/She
His/Hers said he/she liked his/her
car.

We, Us, Our, Ours They, Them, Their, Theirs "We are going" -> They
said they were going.

You, Your, Yours I/He/She/They, "You are tired" -> He said

Me/Him/Her/Them, I/he/she/they was/were
My/His/Her/Their tired.

Adverbs of time and place often undergo transformation in reported speech to align with
the new context of the reporting. Adverbs indicating nearness in time or place in direct
speech typically change to adverbs indicating distance in reported speech.

Direct Speech Adverb Reported Speech Example

Adverb

Now Then "I am busy now" -> She

said she was busy then.

Here There "It is here" -> He said it

was there.

Today That day "I am going today" -> She

said she was going that
day.

Tonight That night "I will be there tonight" ->

He said he would be
there that night.

Tomorrow The next/following day "I will go tomorrow" ->

She said she would go
the next day.

Yesterday The day before/previous "I went yesterday" -> He

day said he had gone the day
before.

Last week/month/year The previous "I saw him last week" ->
week/month/year She said she had seen
him the previous week.
 Next week/month/year The following "I will go next week" ->
week/month/year He said he would go the
following week.

Ago Before "I saw her days ago" ->

He said he had seen her
days before.

This That "I like this" -> She said

she liked that.

These Those "These are mine" -> He

said those were theirs.

3. Reporting Different Sentence Structures

The rules for transforming direct speech into reported speech can vary depending on the type of
sentence being reported.

●​ Declarative statements are typically reported using the reporting verbs "said" or "told". For
example, "I am tired" becomes "She said that she was tired". The word "that" is often
optional after the reporting verb. Numerous examples illustrate the application of tense,
pronoun, and adverb changes when reporting statements.
●​ Interrogative sentences, or questions, are reported differently based on whether they are
yes/no questions or wh-questions. Yes/no questions are introduced by "if" or "whether"
in reported speech. For instance, "Are you coming?" becomes "She asked if I was
coming".The word order in the reported question changes to that of a statement.
Wh-questions (starting with words like who, what, when, where, why, how) retain the
question word in reported speech. For example, "Where are you going?" becomes
"She asked me where I was going". Similar to yes/no questions, the word order shifts to a
statement structure.
●​ Imperative sentences, which express commands or requests, are reported using specific
structures. Commands are typically reported using "tell" followed by the person being
commanded and the to-infinitive form of the verb. For example, "Sit down!" becomes
"She told me to sit down". Requests, especially polite ones, often use the structure
"ask" followed by the person being asked and the to-infinitive. For instance, "Could
you help me?" becomes "She asked him to help her". For negative commands or
requests, "not" is placed before the to-infinitive (e.g., "Don't touch that" -> "She told
him not to touch that"

Youtube Sources:

The Easy Guide to Reported Speech in English | EasyTeaching

Practice questions

1.​ She said, "I am very tired."

2.​ He said, "I will go to the party tomorrow."
3.​ They announced, "We have finished the project."
4.​ He asked, "Where is the library?"
5.​ She said, "I am reading a very interesting book."
6.​ John said, "I saw him yesterday."
7.​ She asked , "Will you help me?"
8.​ He exclaimed, "I can't believe it!"
9.​ The doctor said, "You should take a break."
10.​He said, "I will call you later."
11.​She said, "I have been to Paris."
12.​They said, "It is raining today."
13.​He said, "I want to go home."
14.​She told me, "Don't forget to buy milk."
15.​He asked, "How are you?"

Answer keys

1.​ She said that she was very tired.

2.​ He said that he would go to the party the next day.
3.​ They announced that they had finished the project.
4.​ He asked where the library was.
5.​ She said that she was reading a very interesting book.
6.​ John said that he had seen him the day before.
7.​ She asked me if I would help her.
8.​ He exclaimed that he couldn't believe it.
9.​ The doctor said that I should take a break.
10.​He said that he would call me later.
11.​She said that she had been to Paris.
12.​They said that it was raining that day.
13.​He said that he wanted to go home.
14.​She told me not to forget to buy milk.
15.​He asked how I was.

Active and Passive voice

In active voice sentences, the typical word order follows a Subject-Verb-Object (SVO)
pattern.10 This means that the subject, which is the entity performing the action, typically
appears at the beginning of the sentence, followed by the verb that describes the action,
and then the object (if there is one), which is the entity receiving the action.10 This
arrangement aligns with the natural flow of information in the English language, where the actor is
generally introduced before the action and its effect.12 For instance, in the active sentence "The
dog chases the ball," the subject "dog" precedes the verb "chases" and the object "ball".3

The passive voice is formed using a specific structure: a form of the verb "to be" followed
by the past participle of the main verb.3 Often, a prepositional phrase beginning with "by" is
used to introduce the agent, or the performer of the action, although this is optional and
frequently omitted.3 A defining characteristic of passive voice sentences is the presence of
at least two verbs: a conjugated form of "to be" and the past participle of the main verb.3
For example, in the passive sentence "The ball was chased by the dog," the subject "ball" receives
the action "was chased," which is formed by the past tense of "to be" ("was") and the past
participle of "chase" ("chased"), and the agent "dog" is introduced by "by".
5. Rules for Converting Active to Passive Voice

Converting a sentence from active to passive voice follows a set of specific rules :
1.​ Identify the subject, verb, and object in the active sentence. For example, in the active
sentence "She writes a letter," "She" is the subject, "writes" is the verb, and "a letter" is the
object.
2.​ Interchange the subject and [Link] object of the active sentence becomes the subject
of the passive sentence. In our example, "a letter" becomes the subject.
3.​ Change the main verb to its past participle [Link] verb "writes" becomes "written."
4.​ Add a form of the verb "to be" before the past participle. This form must agree with the new
subject and the tense of the original verb. For "a letter" in the simple present tense, the
correct form is "is."
5.​ The subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence, usually
preceded by the preposition "by".3 "She" becomes "by her." This step can be omitted if the
actor is unknown or unimportant.19
The following table summarizes the changes in verb tenses during the active to passive
conversion:

Active Voice Passive Voice Example (Active) Example

Tense Tense (Passive)

Simple Present Simple Present She writes a letter. A letter is written

(is/am/are + past by her.
participle)

Present Present They are Breakfast is being

Continuous Continuous preparing prepared by them.
(is/am/are + being breakfast.
+ past participle)

Simple Past Simple Past John flew the kite. The kite was flown
(was/were + past by John.
participle)

Past Continuous Past Continuous He was revising His books were

(was/were + being his books. being revised by
+ past participle) him.

Present Perfect Present Perfect Hunter has The institute has

(has/have + been opened an been opened.
+ past participle) institute.

Past Perfect Past Perfect (had She had baked a A cake had been
+ been + past cake. baked by her.
participle)

Future Simple Future Simple (will Sheena will do the The work will be
be + past
 participle) work. done by Sheena.

Future Perfect Future Perfect I will have written A letter will have
(will have been + a letter. been written by
past participle) me.

Modal Verbs (can, Modal Verb + be + He can lift the The box can be
etc.) past participle box. lifted by him.

6. Rules for Converting Passive to Active Voice

To convert a sentence from passive to active voice, a reverse process is followed :

1.​ Identify the subject, which is the receiver of the action, the verb in its passive form, and the
object, which is the original actor often found in the "by" phrase.18 For instance, in "The cake
was baked by Sarah," "The cake" is the subject, "was baked" is the passive verb, and "Sarah"
is the object (agent).
2.​ If the actor is mentioned in a "by" phrase, make it the subject of the active sentence. In our
example, "Sarah" becomes the subject. If the actor is not stated, it might be necessary to infer
from the context or use a general subject like "someone" or "they," as in converting "Mistakes
were made" to "We made mistakes".
3.​ Change the verb from the passive form back to the active form. Ensure the active verb
matches the tense of the passive verb and agrees with the new subject. "Was baked"
becomes "baked."
4.​ The subject of the passive sentence (the original object) now becomes the object of the
active sentence.18 "The cake" becomes the object.
5.​ Rearrange the sentence into the typical SVO order.18

Applying these steps to "The cake was baked by Sarah" results in "Sarah baked the cake."

Youtube sources:

ACTIVE and PASSIVE Voice in English ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Active and Passive Voice Activity | EasyTeaching

Practice Questions

Convert the following to Passive voice

1.​ The dog chased the ball.

2.​ She is writing a novel.
3.​ They have built a new bridge.
4.​ The students will submit their assignments tomorrow.
5.​ Someone stole my wallet.
6.​ The teacher explained the lesson clearly.
7.​ We must follow the rules.
8.​ The company launched a new product last week.
9.​ He is repairing the car.
10.​The chef prepared a delicious meal.
Answers

1.​ The ball was chased by the dog.

2.​ A novel is being written by her.
3.​ A new bridge has been built by them.
4.​ Their assignments will be submitted by the students tomorrow.
5.​ My wallet was stolen (by someone).
6.​ The lesson was explained clearly by the teacher.
7.​ The rules must be followed (by us).
8.​ A new product was launched by the company last week.
9.​ The car is being repaired by him.
10.​A delicious meal was prepared by the chef.

Convert the following to Active voice

1.​ The window was broken by the wind.

2.​ The letter is being written by Sarah.
3.​ The cake has been eaten by the children.
4.​ The report will be finished by the team tomorrow.
5.​ The car was being washed by him.
6.​ Mistakes were made by the new employee.
7.​ The flowers were watered by my sister.
8.​ A new website has been designed by the company.
9.​ The problem is being discussed by the committee.
10.​The movie was directed by a famous director.

Answers

1.​ The wind broke the window.

2.​ Sarah is writing the letter.
3.​ The children have eaten the cake.
4.​ The team will finish the report tomorrow.
5.​ He was washing the car.
6.​ The new employee made mistakes.
7.​ My sister watered the flowers.
8.​ The company has designed a new website.
9.​ The committee is discussing the problem.
10.​A famous director directed the movie.

Identify whether the following sentences are Active or Passive and change it accordingly

1.​ The cat chased the mouse.

2.​ The dinner was cooked by my father.
3.​ They are building a new school.
4.​ The documents will be signed by the manager.
5.​ The artist painted a beautiful picture.
6.​ The car is being repaired by the mechanic.
7.​ The students have submitted their projects.
8.​ The story was told by my grandmother.
9.​ She will send the email shortly.
10.​The wind blew down the old tree.
11.​The dishes are being washed by my brother.
12.​The company has released a new software update.
13.​The concert will be attended by thousands of people.
14.​The dog was barking loudly at the mail carrier.
15.​The teacher praised the student's efforts.
Answers

1.​ (A) The cat chased the mouse. (P) The mouse was chased by the cat.​

2.​ (P) The dinner was cooked by my father. (A) My father cooked the dinner.​

3.​ (A) They are building a new school. (P) A new school is being built by them.​

4.​ (P) The documents will be signed by the manager. (A) The manager will sign the
documents.​

5.​ (A) The artist painted a beautiful picture. (P) A beautiful picture was painted by the artist.​

6.​ (P) The car is being repaired by the mechanic. (A) The mechanic is repairing the car.​

7.​ (A) The students have submitted their projects. (P) Their projects have been submitted by
the students.​

8.​ (P) The story was told by my grandmother. (A) My grandmother told the story.​

9.​ (A) She will send the email shortly. (P) The email will be sent by her shortly.
10.​(A) The wind blew down the old tree. (P) The old tree was blown down by the wind.​

11.​(P) The dishes are being washed by my brother. (A) My brother is washing the dishes.​

12.​(A) The company has released a new software update. (P) A new software update has
been released by the company.​

13.​(P) The concert will be attended by thousands of people. (A) Thousands of people will
attend the concert.​

14.​(A) The dog was barking loudly at the mail carrier. (P) The mail carrier was being barked at
loudly by the dog.​

15.​(A) The teacher praised the student's efforts. (P) The student's efforts were praised by the
teacher.

Proofreading Essentials

Proofreading is the final, mechanical check of a document, focusing on surface-level errors.

●​ Spelling: Check for typos and misspelled words. Be especially vigilant about homophones
(e.g., their/there/they're).
●​ Punctuation: Ensure correct use of commas, semicolons, colons, apostrophes, and
periods. Watch out for common errors like comma splices.
●​ Grammar: Verify subject-verb agreement, check for consistent verb tense, and confirm
the proper use of pronouns.

Identify the errors in the following sentences.

[Link] dog wagged it's tail happily.

[Link] walk to the store every morning.

[Link] you and I, that movie was boring.

[Link] going to the park this afternoon.

[Link] of people attended the concert.

[Link] don't like broccoli or carrots.

[Link] decided to divide the profits equally among the three friends and theirselves.

[Link] I was rich, I would travel the world.

[Link] brought there own lunch to the picnic.

[Link] sister is taller then my brother.

Questions & Question tags

A Question Tag is a short clause added to the end of a statement to turn it into a question. They
are used to confirm information or seek agreement.

Question tags consist of an Auxiliary/Modal Verb and a Pronoun.

Rule of Polarity: The tag's polarity (positive/negative) is opposite to the main statement's
polarity.

A Positive Statement takes a Negative Tag.

Negative Statement takes a Positive Tag.

Statement Example Question Full Sentence

Polarity Statement Tag

Positive You are a student, aren't you? You are a student, aren't
you?

Negative They didn't leave, did they? They didn't leave, did they?