CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY – BURIAS CAMPUS

Bachelor of Science in Agriculture

AGRIC 124 – Beneficial Arthropods and Micro-organisms
LEARNING MODULE 2 – TOPIC 3
Nature of Biological Control Agents

I. INTRODUCTION

Biological control, or biocontrol, is one of the most ecologically sound and sustainable strategies in
integrated pest management (IPM). Rather than relying solely on synthetic chemical pesticides,
biological control leverages naturally occurring organisms — parasitoids, predators, pathogens, and
antagonists — to suppress pest populations and protect agricultural crops, forests, and rangelands.

This module explores the fascinating world of biological control agents (BCAs), examining the
diversity of organisms that function as natural enemies. These agents include:
• Parasitoids – insects that develop on or within a host, eventually killing it
• Predators – arthropods and other organisms that directly consume pest species
• Pathogens – viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozoa that cause disease in pest insects
• Antagonists – microorganisms that suppress plant pathogens through antibiosis,
competition, siderophore production, or mycoparasitism
• Weed biocontrol agents – organisms introduced to manage invasive and noxious weeds

The study of these agents is not merely academic. The successful deployment of biological control
agents has resulted in landmark pest management achievements, such as the near-elimination of
the European spruce sawfly in Canada through nuclear polyhedrosis viruses, and the control of the
invasive prickly pear cactus in Australia using the moth Cactoblastis cactorum — both cases
demonstrating the long-term and cost-effective nature of well-planned biocontrol programs.

Understanding the nature, biology, and mechanisms of these agents equips future agriculturists
with the knowledge to design safer, more sustainable pest management systems that protect
biodiversity and minimize environmental harm.

II. LESSON PROPER

A. Parasitoids, Pathogens, and Predators of Insect and Vertebrate Pests
1. Parasitoids
The term parasitoid was coined in 1913 by German writer O. Reuter to describe organisms that live
in or on a single host during development, eventually killing that host, while the adult stage is free-
living. Approximately 10% of all described insect species are entomophagous parasitoids.

The four major insect orders that include parasitoids are:

• Hymenoptera (largest group) – Chalcidoid wasps, Ichneumon wasps, Proctotrupoidea, and
others
• Diptera (Flies) – Tachinidae (largest parasitoid family), Pipunculidae, Conopidae, and others
• Strepsiptera – A small order consisting entirely of parasitoids
• Coleoptera (Beetles) – Families Ripiphoridae, Rhipiceridae, and rove beetles (genus
Aleochara)

2. Predators of Insects
Natural predators play a vital role in keeping pest populations in check. Common predatory agents
include:
• Green Lacewings – Larvae (aphid lions) are voracious feeders on aphids, small caterpillars,
and beetles
• Syrphid Flies – Larval stage preys on soft-bodied insects, especially important early in the
season
• Predatory Bugs (Hemiptera) – Includes stink bugs, damsel bugs, minute pirate bugs, and
assassin bugs
• Ground Beetles – General feeders with powerful jaws; prey on garden pests found in soil
• Mantids – General predators feeding on insects of suitable size
• Hunting Wasps – Polistes paper wasps search plants and feed heavily on caterpillars
• Predatory Mites – Prey on plant-feeding spider mites; effective in humid conditions
• Spiders – Wolf spiders, crab spiders, and jumping spiders control beetles, leafhoppers, and
aphids

B. Pathogens of Insects
Pathogens are viruses or microorganisms that cause disease. Insects are susceptible to a variety of
acute and fatal diseases caused by these agents, which generally have a relatively narrow host
range.

1. Viruses
• Entomopoxviruses – Related to vertebrate poxviruses; may be the evolutionary source of
poxviruses in vertebrates
• Ascoviruses (Family Ascoviridae) – Found only in lepidopteran larvae (Noctuidae); cause
chronic, fatal larval disease; transmitted by endoparasitic wasps
• Baculoviruses (Family Baculoviridae) – Includes Nuclear Polyhedrosis Viruses (NPVs) and
Granulosis Viruses (GVs); most commonly used as microbial insecticides

2. Bacteria
 • Bacillus sphaericus – Toxic to certain mosquito species; produces a binary toxin during
sporulation that kills mosquito larvae
• Paenibacillus popilliae – Causes milky disease in Japanese beetle larvae; spores remain
active in soil for up to 30 years
• Serratia entomophila – Causes amber disease in the grass grub (Costelytra zealandica);
successfully commercialized in New Zealand

3. Fungi
Fungi infect insects through active penetration of the cuticle. Key genera used in biocontrol include:
• Metarhizium anisopliae (green muscardine) – Broad host range; high commercial potential
• Beauveria bassiana (white muscardine) – Broad host range; widely studied for mass
production
• Paecilomyces fumoso-rosea – Effective against whiteflies
• Verticillium lecanii – Used against aphids and whiteflies
• Hirsutella thompsonii – Targets mites
• Nomuraea rileyi – Effective against noctuid caterpillars

4. Protozoa
Protozoa are unicellular eukaryotic microorganisms that cause chronic diseases in insects.
Microsporidia (Phylum Microspora) are the most common and best-studied group, with over 1,000
species known — mostly from insects in orders Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Orthoptera.
They are obligate intracellular parasites that lack mitochondria.

C. Antagonists of Pathogens (Biological Control of Plant Pathogens)

Antagonists suppress plant pathogens through four primary mechanisms:
1. Antibiosis – Antimicrobial substances produced by bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi that
are toxic to competing microbes. Example: Trichoderma harzianum secretes cell wall-lysing
enzymes (beta-1,3-glucanase and chitinase) effective against Sclerotium rolfsii.
2. Siderophores – Iron-chelating compounds secreted by bacteria (e.g., Pseudomonas
fluorescens) that deprive competing microorganisms of iron. Example: Pseudomonas
aeruginosa shows antagonism against Macrophomina phaseolina and Fusarium oxysporum.
3. Competition – Microorganisms compete for nutrients and space. Peniophora gigantea
controls Fomes annosus in pine stumps; Trichoderma and Gliocladium produce antibiotics
to destroy competing fungal mycelia.
4. Mycoparasitism – One fungus parasitizes another through recognition, coiling, penetration,
and lysis. Examples: Gliocladium roseum penetrates Botrytis allii; Trichoderma viride coils
around Rhizoctonia solani.

D. Biological Control of Weeds

Biological weed control is the deliberate use of natural enemies to reduce weed density to a
tolerable level — not eradication, but reduction to an economically acceptable population.

Methods in Biological Weed Control:

 • Classical Approach – Introducing host-specific natural enemies from the weed's native
region
• Augmentation – Periodic release and/or mass-rearing of native natural enemies
• Biological Herbicides – Application of spore suspensions of plant pathogens as herbicides

Famous examples include the control of prickly pear cactus (Opuntia spp.) in Australia using the
moth Cactoblastis cactorum, and the reduction of Hypericum perforatum to 2% of its former density
in British Columbia, Canada.

III. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

The following activities are designed to deepen your understanding of biological control agents and
their applications in pest management.

Activity 1: Know Your Natural Enemies

Identification and Classification Exercise

Instructions:
For each biological control agent described below, identify its TYPE (parasitoid, predator, pathogen
– virus/bacteria/fungi/protozoa, or antagonist) and write one key characteristic that makes it an
effective biocontrol agent.

Biological Agent Type of BCA Key Characteristic

Beauveria bassiana _______________ _______________

Tachinidae flies _______________ _______________

Green lacewing larvae _______________ _______________

Bacillus sphaericus _______________ _______________

Cactoblastis cactorum _______________ _______________

Microsporidia _______________ _______________

Trichoderma harzianum _______________ _______________

Predatory mites _______________ _______________

 Activity 2: Match the Mechanism
Antagonism in Action

Instructions:
Draw a line or write the correct letter to match each antagonist organism in Column A to its
mechanism of action in Column B.

Column A: Organism Column B: Mechanism

1. Pseudomonas fluorescens a. Mycoparasitism – coils around and lyses

host hyphae

2. Trichoderma viride b. Siderophore production – chelates iron

from the soil

3. Peniophora gigantea c. Antibiosis – secretes cell wall-degrading

enzymes

4. Trichoderma harzianum d. Competition – colonizes stump to exclude

pathogens

5. Gliocladium roseum e. Mycoparasitism – penetrates Botrytis allii

Activity 3: True or False

Test Your Understanding

Instructions:
Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if it is incorrect. If the statement is false, rewrite it
to make it correct on the line provided.

1. The term 'parasitoid' was coined by O. Reuter in 1913.

Answer: ____________ Correction (if false):
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2. Granulosis viruses are known from all major insect orders.

Answer: ____________ Correction (if false):
_______________________________________________

3. Beauveria bassiana infects insects by penetrating through the cuticle.

Answer: ____________ Correction (if false):
_______________________________________________
4. Microsporidia are obligate intracellular parasites that lack mitochondria.
Answer: ____________ Correction (if false):
_______________________________________________

5. The goal of biological weed control is total eradication of the target weed.
Answer: ____________ Correction (if false):
_______________________________________________

6. Paenibacillus popilliae spores can remain active in the soil for up to 30 years.
Answer: ____________ Correction (if false):
_______________________________________________

7. Syrphid fly larvae are important for controlling aphids early in the season.
Answer: ____________ Correction (if false):
_______________________________________________

8. Cactoblastis cactorum was used to control Hypericum perforatum in Australia.

Answer: ____________ Correction (if false):
_______________________________________________

IV. ANALYSIS

The following questions require critical and analytical thinking. Answer each question thoroughly,
drawing on concepts and examples from the module.

A. Short Answer Questions

Provide clear and concise answers (3–5 sentences each).

1. Compare and contrast parasitoids and predators as biological control agents. In what
situations would one be preferred over the other?

2. Baculoviruses (NPVs) are described as the most commonly used microbial insecticides.
Discuss the advantages and limitations of using NPVs in pest management programs.
3. Explain why protozoa, particularly Microsporidia, are considered more suitable as
classical biological control agents rather than microbial insecticides.

4. Describe the step-by-step infection process of entomopathogenic fungi in insects. Why is

humidity a critical factor in their effectiveness?

B. Analytical/Critical Thinking Questions

Answer the following in paragraph form (5–7 sentences each).

5. The NPV of the European spruce sawfly (Gilpinia hercyniae) was accidentally introduced
into Canada in the 1930s. By 1943, the sawfly population dropped below economic
thresholds, with the NPV accounting for more than 90% of control. Analyze the factors that
made this an extraordinary success in biological control. What lessons can be drawn for
modern biocontrol programs?

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6. Some weeds are NOT suitable for biological control. Evaluate the characteristics of a
weed that make it an appropriate versus an inappropriate target for a classical biocontrol
program. Provide specific examples from the module to support your analysis.

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7. Among the four mechanisms of antagonism (antibiosis, siderophores, competition,

mycoparasitism), which do you think is the most effective for managing soil-borne plant
pathogens? Justify your answer with specific examples.
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V. APPLICATION

Apply what you have learned to real-world scenarios and practical situations. These tasks require
synthesis and creative problem-solving.

Task 1: Pest Management Case Study

Scenario: A mango orchard in Capiz is experiencing heavy infestation by mango

leafhopper (Idioscopus clypealis) and mango fruit borer (Citripestis sagittiferella). Chemical
control has been used heavily, leading to pesticide resistance and declining populations of
natural enemies. The farm owner wants to shift to a biologically-based IPM program.

Instructions:
5. Identify at least THREE specific biological control agents (from the groups discussed in this
module) that could be deployed against these pests. For each agent, specify:
◦ The type of BCA (parasitoid, predator, pathogen, antagonist)
◦ The target pest it would control
◦ The mechanism by which it controls the pest
6. Propose a biocontrol strategy: Would you use a classical approach, augmentation, or
inoculative release? Justify your choice.
7. Discuss one potential challenge in implementing this biocontrol program and how you would
address it.

Your Response:
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Task 2: Biocontrol Agent Profile

Task: Create a one-page Biological Control Agent Profile for any ONE organism discussed
in the module. Choose an agent you find most interesting or most applicable to Philippine
agriculture.

Your profile must include the following:

Scientific Name _______________________________________________

Common Name _______________________________________________

Type of BCA (Parasitoid / Predator / Pathogen / Antagonist / Weed

Biocontrol)

Target _______________________________________________
Pest/Pathogen/Weed

Host Range (Narrow or broad? Explain.)

Mode of Action (How does it control the pest?)

Optimal Environmental (Temperature, humidity, etc.)

Conditions
 Commercial Availability (Is it available? Can it be mass-produced?)

Known Success Stories (Examples of successful use)

Limitations / Challenges _______________________________________________

Task 3: Reflection Essay

Prompt: Biological control is often described as a sustainable alternative to chemical pest

management. Based on what you have learned in this module, do you believe that
biological control can completely replace chemical pesticides in Philippine agriculture?
Write a well-reasoned, evidence-based essay (minimum 200 words) defending your
position.

Your Essay:
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VI. REFERENCES

The following references were used in the development of this learning module and are
recommended for further reading and study.

A. Books and Textbooks

8. Bellows, T. S., & Fisher, T. W. (Eds.). (1999). Handbook of Biological Control: Principles and
Applications of Biological Control. Academic Press.
9. Flint, M. L., & Dreistadt, S. H. (1998). Natural Enemies Handbook: The Illustrated Guide to
Biological Pest Control. University of California Press.
10. Hajek, A. E. (2004). Natural Enemies: An Introduction to Biological Control. Cambridge
University Press.
11. Van Driesche, R. G., & Bellows, T. S. (1996). Biological Control. Chapman and Hall.
12. Tanada, Y., & Kaya, H. K. (1993). Insect Pathology. Academic Press.
13. Metcalf, R. L., & Luckmann, W. H. (Eds.). (1994). Introduction to Insect Pest Management
(3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.

B. Journal Articles and Scientific Publications

14. Glare, T. R., & O'Callaghan, M. (2000). Bacillus thuringiensis: Biology, Ecology and Safety.
John Wiley & Sons.
15. Lacey, L. A., & Goettel, M. S. (1995). Current Developments in Microbial Control of Insect
Pests and Prospects for the Early 21st Century. Entomophaga, 40(1-2), 3–27.
16. Federici, B. A. (1999). Naturally Occurring Baculoviruses for Insect Pest Control. In Hall, F.
R. & Menn, J. J. (Eds.), Biopesticides: Use and Delivery. Humana Press.
17. Cook, R. J., & Baker, K. F. (1983). The Nature and Practice of Biological Control of Plant
Pathogens. American Phytopathological Society.
 18. Hokkanen, H. M. T., & Lynch, J. M. (1995). Biological Control: Benefits and Risks.
Cambridge University Press.

C. Online and Institutional Resources

19. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Biological Control in Crop
Production. Retrieved from [Link]
20. Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice). Biological Control in Rice Production Systems.
Retrieved from [Link]
21. Bureau of Plant Industry – Philippines (BPI). Integrated Pest Management Resources.
Retrieved from [Link]
22. University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources (UC ANR). Biological Control of
Insects and Mites. Retrieved from [Link]
23. International Organization for Biological Control (IOBC). Biocontrol Guidelines and
Resources. Retrieved from [Link]

D. Module Source
24. Gacasan, E. P. (n.d.). AGRIC 124 – Beneficial Arthropods and Micro-organisms: Learning
Module 2, Topic 3 – Nature of Biological Control Agents. Capiz State University – Burias
Campus, College of Agriculture and Forestry.

— End of Learning Module 2, Topic 3 —

Capiz State University – Burias Campus | For Instructional Purposes Only
Organized by: EDDIE P. GACASAN | Faculty, College of Agriculture and Forestry