Heat Transfer

Ch2: Introduction to Conduction

Chih-Chang Chang (張志彰)

ccchang0930@[Link]

Reference:
T.L. Bergman and A.S. Lavine, Incropera's Principles of Heat and Mass Transfer, 8th edition, Wiley, 2017
Y. A. Cengel and A.J. Ghajar, Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals and Applications, 6th edition, McGraw Hill, 2024
Outline

 Fourier’s law

 Heat diffusion equation (heat equation)

 Initial and boundary conditions

 Fourier’s law
• Fourier’s law: it is developed from observed phenomena rather than being
derived from first law of thermodynamics.

Introducing a coefficient of k
∆T ∆T
qx ∝ A q x = kA
∆x ∆x

dT
Steady-state heat conduction ∆x → 0 q x = − kA
experiment dx

dT
Heat flux q′x′ = q x / A = − k
dx
Note that the direction of heat flux is normal to
the cross-sectional area A
 Heat conduction equation
• General statement of conduction rate equation (Fourier’s law):
∂T ∂T ∂T
q′′ = − k∇T q′′ =
−k i−k j− k k
• Cartesian coordinates: ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂ q′′ = q′′x i + q′′y j + q′′z k
∇ =i + j +k T ( x, y , z )
∂x ∂y ∂z

• Alternative form of Fourier law:

∂T
q′′ = q′′n = −k n
∂n

2D
Heat conduction equation
• Cylindrical coordinates:
∂T 1 ∂T ∂T
′′
q = −k i−k j− k k
∂r r ∂φ ∂z

q′′ = qr′′i + qφ′′j + q′′z k

• Spherical coordinates:
∂T 1 ∂T 1 ∂T
q′′ =
−k i−k j− k k
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
q′′ = qr′′i + qθ′′ j + qφ′′k
Thermal conductivity

q′x′ q′y′ q′z′

kx = − ky = − kz = −
(∂T ∂x ) (∂T ∂y ) (∂T ∂z )
Isotropic material kx = k y = kz = k

• Thermal conductivity, k
Solid > Liquid > Gas
Thermal conductivity of solid state
• Transport of thermal energy in solid state: free electron and atom (lattice)
 Migration of free electrons: Conducting materials (pure metals)
 Lattice vibrational wave (phonons): nonconductor, semiconductor

• Thermal conductivity of solid may be expressed as:

k = ke + k ph

Pure metals: ke >> k ph

Alloys: ke ~ k ph
Nonmetallic solids: ke << k ph
Thermal diffusivity

• Thermal diffusivity: the ability of a material to conduct thermal energy relative to its
ability to store thermal energy.

k
α=
ρc p
thermal diffusivity (m2/s) heat capacity (J/m2-K)
Heat diffusion equation (cont’d)
• Taylor series expansion: neglecting high-order terms
∂q x ∂q y ∂q z
q x + dx = qx + dx q y + dy = q y + dy q z + dz = qz + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
• Energy source: the rate of thermal energy generation

E g = qdxdydz
• Energy storage: the rate of change in sensible energy
C.V.
 ∂T
E st = ρc p dxdydz
∂t
• Conservation of energy: : E in + E g − E out = E st

∂q x ∂q y ∂q z ∂T
− dx − dy − dz + qdxdydz = ρc p
 dxdydz
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
Heat diffusion equation (cont’d)

∂q x ∂q y ∂q z ∂T
− dx − dy − dz + qdxdydz = ρc p dxdydz
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
Introducing Fourier’s law:

∂T ∂T ∂T
q x = − kdydz q y = − kdxdz q z = − kdxdy
∂x ∂y ∂z
Heat diffusion equation (heat equation):

∂T ∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T 
ρcp = k + k + k  + q
∂t ∂x  ∂x  ∂y  ∂y  ∂z  ∂z 

∂T ∂  ∂T 
ρcp
1D:= k  + q
∂t ∂x  ∂x 
Heat diffusion equation (cont’d)

1 ∂T  ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T  q
k is constant =  2 + 2 + 2 +
α ∂t  ∂x ∂y ∂z  k

k is constant ∂T  ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T  ∂T
No thermal energy = α  2 + 2 + 2  or = α∇ 2T
generation ∂t  ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂t

Steady-state
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T
+ 2 + 2 =0 or ∇ 2T = 0 (Laplace equation)
∂x 2
∂y ∂z
Heat diffusion equation (Cylindrical coordinates)

 ∂T 1 ∂T ∂T 
q′′ =
−k  i+ j+ k
 ∂r r ∂φ ∂z 

∂T k ∂T ∂T
qr′′ = − k qφ′′ = − q′z′ = − k
∂r r ∂φ ∂z

∂T 1 ∂  ∂T  1 ∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T 
ρcp =  kr + 2 k + k  + q
∂t r ∂r  ∂r  r ∂ϕ  ∂ϕ  ∂z  ∂z 
Heat diffusion equation (Spherical coordinates)

 ∂T 1 ∂T 1 ∂T 
q′′ = −k  i+ j+ k 
 ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ 

∂T k ∂T k ∂T
qr′′ = − k qθ′′ = − qφ′′ = −
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ

∂T 1 ∂  2 ∂T  1 ∂  ∂T  1 ∂  ∂T 
ρcp =  kr + 2 2 k + 2  k sin θ  + q
 r sin θ ∂ϕ  ∂ϕ  r sin θ ∂θ  ∂θ 
2
∂t r ∂r  ∂r
Heat diffusion equation (Spherical coordinates)

 ∂T 1 ∂T 1 ∂T 
q′′ = −k  i+ j+ k 
 ∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ 

∂T k ∂T k ∂T
qr′′ = − k qθ′′ = − qφ′′ = −
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ

1 ∂  2 ∂T  1 ∂  ∂T  1 ∂  ∂T  ∂T
 kr + 2 2  k  + 2  k sin θ  + q = ρc p
r ∂r 
2
∂r  r sin θ ∂φ  ∂φ  r sin θ ∂θ  ∂θ  ∂t
 Heat diffusion equation
Example 2.3:

(1) qin 120

= = kW, qin 160 kW
(2) E st = −30 kW
Ans.:
(3) ∂T =
−4.69 ×10−4 o
C/s
∂t
Boundary condition

• Dirichlet condition:

• Neuman condition:
∂T
q′′x ( 0 ) =
−k qs′′
=
∂x x =0

• Robin condition:
 Boundary condition
Example 2.4
Exercises

Problems: 2.3, 2.6, 2.9, 2.21, 2.22, 2.26, 2.37, 2.38, 2.41