DC Circuits

Detailed Revision Notes

Electric Current and Resistance

Electric Current
Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge across any cross-section of a conductor.
Average current: If ∆q charge flows through a cross-section in time ∆t,
∆q
iavg =
∆t

Instantaneous current:

∆q dq
i = lim =
∆t→0 ∆t dt

SI unit: Ampere (A). 1 A = 1 C/s. 1 mA = 10−3 A, 1 µA = 10−6 A.

Convention: Direction of current = direction of flow of positive charges (opposite to electron flow in metals).
Charge from t = ti to t = tf :
Z tf
q= i dt
ti

Ohm’s Law & Resistance

The current through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends (at constant
temperature and physical conditions):

V ∝ I =⇒ V = IR (R = resistance, constant)

R is the resistance of the conductor – the opposition to electron flow due to collisions with stationary ions. SI unit:
1V
ohm (Ω). 1 Ω = .
1A
R depends on: material, length (l), and cross-sectional area (A):
1
R∝l & R∝
A

l
R=ρ
A
where ρ = resistivity (specific resistance), a material property. SI unit: Ω · m.
ρ is defined as the resistance of a conductor of length 1 m and cross-sectional area 1 m2 .
Current Density
Current per unit normal cross-sectional area, denoted j:

i
j= (SI unit: A m−2 )
A
Z
⃗
If j is constant: i = ⃗j · A. If j is variable: i = ⃗
⃗j · dA.

Drift Velocity and Current

When a potential difference is applied across a conductor, an electric field E is set up. Electrons experience force
F = −eE and gain a drift velocity vd superimposed on their random thermal velocities. Between collisions, an electron
gains speed; the average time between collisions is the relaxation time τ .
eE
Acceleration due to field: a = , so
m
DC Circuits — Notes 2

eE τ
vd = (drift velocity)
m
Current in terms of drift velocity: In time ∆t, charge transported across area A:

∆q = neA vd ∆t =⇒ i = neAvd

i = neAvd and j = nevd

where n = free electron density (electrons per m3 ), e = 1.6 × 10−19 C.

Combining E = jρ and j = nevd :
1 ne2 τ
σ= = (σ = conductivity)
ρ m

Mobility (µ)
Magnitude of drift velocity per unit electric field:

vd eτ
µ= = (SI unit: m2 V−1 s−1 )
E m
Mobility is independent of electric field and dimensions of conductor.
Limitations of Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law (V ∝ I) is not universally valid. Deviations occur in:

1. (a) V ceases to be proportional to I (e.g., high-temperature conductors).

2. (b) V –I relation depends on sign of V (e.g., diodes – asymmetric I–V curves).
3. (c) V –I relation is not unique (e.g., GaAs – multiple currents for one voltage; shows a negative resistance
region).
Temperature Dependence of Resistivity
m
In conductors, ρ = 2 . As temperature rises, τ decreases ⇒ ρ increases.
ne τ

ρT = ρ0 [1 + αρ (T − T0 )]

where αρ = temperature coefficient of resistivity, ρ0 = resistivity at reference temperature T0 .

For insulators/semiconductors: n increases with temperature, more than compensating the decrease in τ , so ρ
decreases with temperature. α is negative for semiconductors.
Temperature Dependence of Resistance
At temperature T , resistance RT vs. R0 at T0 (accounting for both ρ and dimensional changes in l, A):

RT = R0 (1 + α0 ∆T ) where ∆T = T − T0 , αρ ≫ α

Illustrations 7 & 8
(7) A square cross-section (2 mm × 2 mm), 12 m long conductor has R = 0.072 Ω.
(a) Resistivity: ρ = RA/l = 0.072 × 4 × 10−6 /12 = 2.4 × 10−8 Ωm
(b) Electric field at V /l = 0.12 V/m; V = 0.12 × 12 = 1.44 V, i = V /R = 20 A
(c) Drift velocity: vd = i/(enA) = 20/(1.6 × 10−19 × 8 × 1028 × 4 × 10−6 ) ≈ 3.9 × 10−4 m/s
(8) Silver wire radius 0.8 mm, i = 200 mA, n = 5.8 × 1028 m−3 , ρ = 1.5 × 10−8 Ωm.
(a) vd = i/(enA) ≈ 1.07 × 10−3 m/s
(b) E = jρ = (i/A)ρ ≈ 1.49 × 10−3 V/m

Series and Parallel Combination of Resistances

Equivalent resistance: A single resistor that can replace a combination such that the current in the circuit remains
unchanged.
Series Combination
Resistors connected end-to-end; same current flows through each:

Req = R1 + R2 + · · · + Rn

ˆ Current through each resistor is the same: I

DC Circuits — Notes 3

R1 R2
ˆ Voltage divides: V1 = V, V2 = V
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Parallel Combination
Resistors connected between same two nodes; same voltage across each:

1 1 1 1
= + + ··· +
Req R1 R2 Rn

ˆ Voltage across each resistor is the same: V

R2 R1
ˆ Current divides: I1 = I, I2 = I
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Illustration 14
Find current through 5 Ω resistance in a circuit with EMF = 50 V, 10 Ω in series with parallel combination of
20 Ω and 5 Ω.
20 × 5
Net resistance = 10 + = 10 + 4 = 14 Ω
20 + 5
E 50 Vparallel
i= = A. Voltage across parallel combination = i × 4. Current through 5 Ω = .
Rnet 14 5

Electric Power
Energy liberated per second in a device is Power. For an electrical device with potential difference V and current I:

V2
P = V I = I 2R =
R
SI unit: Watt (W). 1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J.
Z
If power is constant: Energy = P t. If variable: Energy = P dt.

Heat dissipated (Joule’s Law): When current flows through a resistor, electrical energy converts to heat:

V 2t V 2t
H = I 2 R t = V It = (in joules) H= calories
R 4.18R
Power consumed by a bulb: If rated power RP at rated voltage RV , then:

(RV )2
Rbulb =
RP

Illustrations 17 & 19
(17) Two heating coils, one boils water in 6 min, another in 8 min. Let R1 , R2 be resistances and V the supply
voltage. In series (ts ) and parallel (tp ):

t1 t2 6×8 24
ts = t1 + t2 = 14 min, tp = = = min
t1 + t2 14 7

(19) Bulb rated 220 V, 40 W. (a) R = (220)2 /40 = 1210 Ω. (b) At 200 V: P = (200)2 /1210 ≈ 33.1 W (less than
rated – dimmer). (c) To glow at normal brightness from 330 V: connect series resistance Rs such that voltage
across bulb = 220 V:
330 − 220 110 × 1210
Rs = = = 605 Ω
I 220

EMF, Internal Resistance and Power of a Cell

EMF and Internal Resistance
An electric cell converts chemical energy to electrical energy, maintaining a constant potential difference. The force
(influence) that moves charge from low to high potential inside the cell is the electromotive force (EMF) ε.
Quantitatively: EMF = potential difference across cell terminals when no current flows (open circuit).
EMF of an electrolytic cell: ε = V+ + V− > 0.
The internal resistance r is the resistance offered by electrodes and electrolyte.
DC Circuits — Notes 4

Cell as Source (Discharging)

VAB = ε − ir (terminal voltage)

ˆ Rate of chemical energy consumed = εi

ˆ Heat generated inside cell = i2 r
ˆ Useful electric power output = εi − i2 r = (ε − ir)i
Cell as Load (Charging)

VAB = ε + ir

ˆ Chemical energy stored in cell per second = εi

ˆ Thermal power inside cell = i2 r
ˆ Electric power input = εi + i2 r = (ε + ir)i

Illustration 22
PD across battery terminals is 8.5 V when current = 3 A (discharge). PD becomes 11 V when current = 2 A
(reverse, i.e., charging).
Discharge: VAB = E − ir =⇒ 8.5 = E − 3r . . . (i)
Charge: VAB = E + ir =⇒ 11 = E + 2r . . . (ii)
Solving: E = 10 V, r = 0.5 Ω

Illustration 23
Battery emf 2 V, r = 0.1 Ω, being charged at I = 5 A. Current enters positive terminal (charging). Terminal PD
= E + ir = 2 + 5(0.1) = 2.5 V.
Grouping of Cells
Cells in Series (n cells, emf E, internal resistance r each):

Eeq = E1 + E2 + · · · + En [write with polarity], req = r1 + r2 + · · · + rn

nE
I=
R + nr

Note: If m cells are reversed (polarity flipped), equivalent emf = (n − 2m)E, equivalent resistance still = nr + R,
so:
(n − 2m)E
i=
nr + R

Cells in Parallel (m identical cells, emf E, internal resistance r):

r mE
Eeq = E, req = , I=
m mR + r

Cells in Multiple Arc (m rows, n cells per row):

nr mE mE
Eeq = nE, req = , I= =
m R + nr
m
mR+nr
m

nr
For maximum current: external resistance R = = net internal resistance.
m
Two cells in parallel (different emf ):

ε1 r2 + ε2 r1 r1 r2
εeq = , req =
r1 + r2 r1 + r2
DC Circuits — Notes 5

Illustration 27
12 cells (same emf E, no internal resistance) in series; x cells wrongly connected. Current = 3 A when cells aid
each other; = 2 A when they oppose. Let R = total resistance.

(12 − x)E − xE (12 − 2x)E (12 − x)E − xE

3= = . . . (i), 2= gives same form
R R R
3 14 − 2x
Dividing: = =⇒ x = 1 cell wrongly connected.
2 10 − 2x

Kirchhoff ’s Laws
Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL) – Junction Rule
The sum of currents arriving at a junction = sum of currents leaving the junction. (Conservation of charge)
X X X
iin = iout or equivalently i = 0 at a junction

Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law (KVL) – Loop Rule

The algebraic sum of potential changes around any closed loop = 0. (Conservation of energy)
X
∆V = 0 around a closed loop

Sign conventions for KVL:

1. Traversing a resistor in the direction of current: potential change = −iR (fall).
Traversing opposite to current: potential change = +iR (rise).
2. Traversing a cell from − to + terminal (direction of emf): change = +E (rise).
Traversing from + to − terminal: change = −E (fall).

Illustration 31
All elements in series: EMFs 20 V, 15 V, 30 V; resistances 1 Ω, 4 Ω, 2 Ω, 3 Ω. Let current = i.
Applying KVL around loop ABCDA:

10 + 4i − 20 + i + 15 + 2i − 30 + 3i = 0 =⇒ 10i = 25 =⇒ i = 2.5 A

Wheatstone Bridge Network

A Wheatstone bridge has four resistors R1 , R2 , R3 , R4 arranged in a diamond. A galvanometer (R0 ) is connected
across the middle. The bridge is balanced when no current flows through the galvanometer:

R1 R3
= (Balance condition)
R2 R4

At balance, A and B are at the same potential, so the galvanometer branch can be removed without affecting the
circuit.

Note: If the current through a branch is zero, it can be removed without affecting the rest of the circuit.

Meter Bridge: A practical instrument based on the Wheatstone bridge principle, using a uniform resistance wire of
1 m (PQ). If null deflection is at length l from P:

R1 X l2
= =⇒ X = R
R R l1

The meter bridge is used to find an unknown resistance.

Illustration 39 – NCERT
Wheatstone bridge: AB = 100 Ω, BC = 10 Ω, CD = 5 Ω, DA = 60 Ω. Galvanometer 15 Ω across BD. PD = 10
V across AC. Find Ig .
Apply KVL to loops XABCYX, XADCYX, and ABDA, assign currents I1 , I2 , Ig :

11I1 − Ig = 1 . . . (i), 13I2 + Ig = 2 . . . (ii), 20I1 + 3Ig − 12I2 = 0 . . . (iii)

Solving: Ig = 4.87 mA
DC Circuits — Notes 6

Measurement of Current and Potential Difference

Galvanometer
Detects the presence of small currents. Angular deflection of needle ∝ current through it. Full-scale deflection
current If (of the order of mA) is the maximum safe current.
Conversion of Galvanometer to Ammeter
To extend range to measure current I (where I > If ): connect a small shunt resistance R in parallel.

If G
If G = (I − If )R =⇒ R =
I − If

R is small (called shunt). The combination (galvanometer + shunt) is the ammeter. Ideal ammeter: Rammeter ≈ 0.
Conversion of Galvanometer to Voltmeter
To measure voltage V : connect a large series resistance R across the galvanometer (resistance G):

V
V = If (G + R) =⇒ R = −G
If

Ideal voltmeter: Rvoltmeter → ∞. Connected in parallel across the element.

Illustration 46
Voltmeter resistance 500 Ω measures emf of cell with internal resistance 4 Ω. % error:

500E E − 500E
504 4
Reading = , % error = × 100 = × 100 ≈ 0.8%
504 E 504
Answer: (B) 0.8%

Illustration 47
Shunt passing 10% of main current through galvanometer of 99 Ω. If G = (I − If )R:

I 9I
× 99 = × R =⇒ R = 11 Ω
10 10

Illustration 42
Battery emf 1.4 V, r = 2 Ω, R = 100 Ω. Ammeter (RA = 4 Ω) in series; voltmeter (RV = 200 Ω) across R.
E 1.4 R · RV 100 × 200
Actual: i = = ≈ 0.02 A; voltmeter reads = i × = 0.02 × ≈ 43 mV.
R + RA + r 106 R + RV 300
1.4 1.4 × 100
If ideal (RA = 0, RV = ∞): Ammeter reads ≈ 0.013 A; voltmeter reads ≈ 1.37 V.
102 102
DC Circuits — Notes 7

Quick Formula Summary

Z
dq
Current: i= , q= i dt
dt
l
Ohm’s Law: V = IR, R=ρ
A
i 1 ne2 τ
Current density: j= = nevd , σ= =
A ρ m
eEτ
Drift velocity: vd = , i = neAvd
m
eτ vd
Mobility: µ= =
m E
Temp. dependence: ρT = ρ0 [1 + αρ ∆T ], RT = R0 (1 + α0 ∆T )
Series resistance: Req = R1 + R2 + · · ·
1 1 1
Parallel resistance: = + + ···
Req R1 R2
V2
Power: P = V I = I 2R = , H = I 2 Rt
R
Cell (discharging): Vterminal = ε − ir
Cell (charging): Vterminal = ε + ir
X X nE
Cells in series: Eeq = Ei , req = ri , I=
R + nr
mE
Cells in parallel: Eeq = E, req = r/m, I =
mR + r
ε1 r2 + ε2 r1 r1 r2
Two cells parallel: εeq = , req =
r1 + r2 r1 + r2
(n − 2m)E
Reversed cells: i=
nr + R
X X
KCL: iin = iout
X
KVL: ∆V = 0 (closed loop)
R1 R3
Wheatstone bridge: = (balance)
R2 R4
If G
Galvanometer→Ammeter: Rshunt =
I − If
V
Galvanometer→Voltmeter: Rseries = −G
If