Python Programming

Chapter-1
Informal Introduction to Programming
What is Programming?

Programming is the process of giving instructions to a computer to perform tasks.

Think of it like:

 A recipe → instructions for cooking

 A program → instructions for a computer

A program tells the computer:

 What to do
 How to do it
 When to stop

Key Components of Programming

 Input → Data given to program

 Process → Logic applied to data
 Output → Result produced

Example:
Input: 2, 3
Process: Add numbers
Output: 5

What is a Programming Language?

A programming language is a way to communicate with a computer.

Examples:

 Python

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 C++
 Java
 JavaScript

Python is popular because it is:

 Easy to read
 Beginner-friendly
 Very powerful

he process of writing code in Python to solve problems, automate tasks, or build

applications.

💡Simple Definition
Python is a high-level, interpreted programming language that is:

 Easy to read and write

 Beginner-friendly
 Very powerful

💡How Python Programming Works

A Python program follows:
Input → Processing → Output

Example:
a = 5
b = 3
print(a + b)

 Input → 5, 3
 Processing → addition
 Output → 8

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💡 Why Python is Used

Python is popular because:

 Simple syntax (like English)

 Less code compared to other languages
 Large community and libraries

Features of Python
Python is popular because of its powerful and user-friendly features.

1. Simple and Easy to Learn

Python syntax is very simple and readable, almost like English.
print("Hello World")

�No complex syntax → best for beginners

2. Interpreted Language
Python is interpreted, not compiled.

 Code runs line by line

 Errors are shown immediately

�Makes debugging easier

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3. High-Level Language
Python is high-level, meaning:

 You don’t need to manage memory manually

 Focus is on logic, not hardware details

4. Dynamically Typed
No need to declare data types:
x = 10
x = "Hello"

�Type is decided at runtime

5. Object-Oriented
Python supports OOP concepts:

 Classes
 Objects
 Inheritance
 Polymorphism
class Student:
pass

6. Platform Independent (Portable)

Python runs on:

 Windows
 macOS

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 Linux

�Write once, run anywhere

7. Large Standard Library

Python has a huge built-in library:

 Math operations
 File handling
 Networking
 Databases

Example:
import math
print([Link](16))

8. Open Source
 Free to use
 Source code is publicly available
 Large community support

9. Extensible and Embeddable

 Can be combined with C, C++
 Can be embedded in other applications

10. Supports Multiple Programming

Paradigms
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Python supports:

 Procedural
 Object-Oriented
 Functional programming

11. Automatic Memory Management

 Uses Garbage Collection
 Automatically frees unused memory

12. Large Community Support

 Millions of developers
 Lots of tutorials, libraries, tools

13. Wide Range of Applications

Python is used in:

 Web development
 AI & Machine Learning
 Data Science
 Automation
 Game development

2. Introduction to Algorithms
What is an Algorithm?

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An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure to solve a problem.

Example (Making Tea Algorithm):

1. Boil water
2. Add tea leaves
3. Add sugar
4. Add milk
5. Serve

Properties of an Algorithm

 Finite (must end)

 Clear steps
 Well-defined inputs and outputs

Example Algorithm (Add Two Numbers)

1. Start
2. Take input A and B
3. Compute sum = A + B
4. Display sum
5. Stop

Why Algorithms Matter

 Help solve problems efficiently

 Make programs faster and cleaner
 Foundation of all software systems

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3. Introduction to Data Structures

What is a Data Structure?

A data structure is a way to store and organize data so it can be used

efficiently.

ommon Data Structures

1. List (Array)

Stores multiple values in order.

numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4]

2. Stack (LIFO)

Last In First Out

Like a stack of plates.
3. Queue (FIFO)

First In First Out

Like a line at a ticket counter.
4. Dictionary (Key-Value)
student = {"name": "Rahul", "age": 20}

Why Data Structures Matter

 Improve efficiency
 Help manage large data

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 Critical for real-world applications

4. Downloading and Installing Python

Step 1: Download Python

Go to:
�[Link]
 Click Download Python
 Choose latest version (Python 3.x)

Step 2: Install Python

On Windows:

1. Run installer
2. IMPORTANT: ✔ Check "Add Python to PATH"
3. Click Install

On macOS:

 Install via .pkg file or use Homebrew:

brew install python

On Linux:

Usually pre-installed, or:

sudo apt install python3

Step 3: Verify Installation

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Open terminal/command prompt:
python --version

or
python3 --version

You should see something like:

Python 3.x.x

5. Python Interpreter
What is the Python Interpreter?

It executes Python code line by line.

How to Start Interpreter

Open terminal and type:

python

You’ll see:
>>>

This is the Python prompt.

Try Simple Commands

>>> 2 + 3
5

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>>> print("Hello World")
Hello World

6. Writing and Running a Simple

Python Program
Method 1: Using Interpreter

Just type directly:

>>> print("Hello, Python!")

Method 2: Using a Script File

Step 1: Create File

Create a file:
[Link]

Step 2: Write Code

print("Hello, Python!")

Step 3: Run Program

In terminal:
python [Link]

Output:
Hello, Python!

7. Basic Python Concepts

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Variables
x = 10
name = "Aman"

Data Types
 Integer → 10
 Float → 3.14
 String → "Hello"
 Boolean → True / False

Input from User

name = input("Enter your name: ")
print("Hello", name)

Conditional Statements
age = 18

if age >= 18:

print("Adult")
else:
print("Minor")

Loops

For Loop
for i in range(5):
print(i)

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While Loop
i=0
while i < 5:
print(i)
i += 1

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Chapter -2

Variables
What is a Variable?

A variable is a named storage location for data.

x = 10
name = "Riya"

 x stores an integer
 name stores a string

Rules for Naming Variables

 Must start with a letter or _
 Cannot start with a number
 Case-sensitive (age ≠ Age)
 Cannot use keywords (if, for, etc.)

Dynamic Typing (Python Feature)

You don’t declare type explicitly:

x = 10
x = "hello" # valid

2. Operations (Operators)
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Arithmetic Operators
a = 10
b = 3

a + b # 13
a - b # 7
a * b # 30
a / b # 3.33
a // b # 3 (floor division)
a % b # 1 (remainder)
a ** b # 1000 (power)

Comparison Operators
a == b
a != b
a > b
a < b
a >= b
a <= b

Logical Operators
True and False
True or False
not True

Assignment Operators
x = 5
x += 2 # x = x + 2
x -= 1
x *= 3

3. Control Flow
Control flow determines how code executes.
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3.1 Conditional Statements

if Statement
age = 18

if age >= 18:

print("Adult")

if-else
if age >= 18:
print("Adult")
else:
print("Minor")

if-elif-else
marks = 75

if marks >= 90:

print("A")
elif marks >= 70:
print("B")
else:
print("C")

3.2 Loops

for Loop

Used when number of iterations is known.

for i in range(5):
print(i)

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while Loop
Runs while condition is true.
i = 0
while i < 5:
print(i)
i += 1

Loop Control Statements

break # exit loop
continue # skip iteration
pass # do nothing

4. Functions
What is a Function?

A function is a reusable block of code.

Defining a Function
def greet():
print("Hello")

Function with Parameters

def add(a, b):
return a + b

Calling Function
result = add(2, 3)

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4.1 Default Arguments

def greet(name="Guest"):
print("Hello", name)

greet() # Hello Guest

greet("Aman") # Hello Aman

4.2 Optional Arguments (Keyword Arguments)

def display(name, age):
print(name, age)

display(age=20, name="Riya")

4.3 Variable-Length Arguments

*args (non-keyword)
def add(*numbers):
return sum(numbers)

add(1, 2, 3, 4)

**kwargs (keyword arguments)

def info(**data):
print(data)

info(name="Aman", age=21)

4.4 Passing Functions as Arguments

Functions are first-class objects in Python.

def square(x):
return x * x

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def apply(func, value):
return func(value)

apply(square, 5)

5. Statements vs Expressions
Statement

A statement performs an action.

x = 10
print(x)

Expression
An expression returns a value.
2 + 3
x * 5

Key Difference
 Expression → produces value
 Statement → performs action

6. Strings
What is a String?

A sequence of characters.
text = "Hello"

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6.1 String Operations

a = "Hello"
b = "World"

a + b # concatenation
a * 3 # repetition
a[0] # 'H'

6.2 String Methods

[Link]()
[Link]()
[Link]()
[Link]("H", "J")
[Link]()

6.3 String Formatting

f-strings (recommended)
name = "Riya"
age = 20

print(f"My name is {name}, age {age}")

7. String Processing
Iterating Through String
for ch in "Hello":
print(ch)

Checking Substrings
"ell" in "Hello" # True

Slicing
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text = "Python"

text[0:3] # 'Pyt'
text[::-1] # reverse

8. Exception Handling
What is an Exception?

An error that occurs during execution.

try-except
try:
x = int("abc")
except ValueError:
print("Conversion failed")

Multiple Exceptions
try:
a = 10 / 0
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Cannot divide by zero")

else and finally

try:
x = 10 / 2
except:
print("Error")
else:
print("Success")
finally:
print("Always runs")

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9. Basic Input/Output
Input
name = input("Enter name: ")

Output
print("Hello", name)

Type Conversion
age = int(input("Enter age: "))

10. File Handling

Opening a File
file = open("[Link]", "r")

Modes:
 "r" → read
 "w" → write (overwrite)
 "a" → append
 "b" → binary

Reading File
[Link]()
[Link]()
[Link]()

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Writing File
file = open("[Link]", "w")
[Link]("Hello World")

Closing File
[Link]()

10.1 Best Practice (with statement)

with open("[Link]", "r") as file:
content = [Link]()

 Automatically closes file

 Safer

11. Putting It All Together

A small program using everything:
def process_file(filename="[Link]"):
try:
with open(filename, "r") as f:
content = [Link]()
print([Link]())
except FileNotFoundError:
print("File not found")

process_file()

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Chapter -3

Class and Object

1.1 What is a Class?

A class is a blueprint for creating objects.

 Defines properties (variables)
 Defines behaviors (methods)

class Student:
pass

1.2 What is an Object?

An object is an instance of a class.

s1 = Student()

1.3 Class with Attributes and Methods

class Student:
def __init__(self, name, age):
[Link] = name
[Link] = age

def display(self):
print([Link], [Link])

s1 = Student("Riya", 20)
[Link]()

Key Concepts

1. Constructor (__init__)
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 Automatically called when object is created
 Initializes object

2. self
 Refers to current object
 Must be first parameter in methods

1.4 Instance vs Class Variables

class Student:
school = "ABC School" # class variable

def __init__(self, name):

[Link] = name # instance variable

1.5 Encapsulation (Basic Idea)

Restrict access to data.

class Bank:
def __init__(self):
self.__balance = 0 # private variable

2. Data Structures in Python

Data structures help store and organize data efficiently.

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3. List
3.1 What is a List?

A list is an ordered, mutable collection.

numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4]

3.2 Features

 Ordered
 Mutable (can change)
 Allows duplicates
 Can store mixed types

3.3 Accessing Elements

numbers[0]
numbers[-1]

3.4 List Operations

[Link](5)
[Link](1, 10)
[Link](3)
[Link]()

3.5 Slicing
numbers[1:3]
numbers[::-1]

3.6 Iteration
for n in numbers:
print(n)

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4. Tuple
4.1 What is a Tuple?

A tuple is an ordered, immutable collection.

t = (1, 2, 3)

4.2 Features

 Ordered
 Immutable (cannot change)
 Faster than lists
 Allows duplicates

4.3 Accessing Elements

t[0]

4.4 Tuple Packing & Unpacking

t = (1, 2, 3)

a, b, c = t

4.5 When to Use Tuple?

 When data should not change

 For fixed collections (e.g., coordinates)

5. Sequences

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5.1 What is a Sequence?

A sequence is an ordered collection.

Examples:
 List
 Tuple
 String

5.2 Common Operations

len(seq)
seq[0]
seq[1:3]

5.3 Membership
3 in [1, 2, 3] # True

5.4 Iteration
for item in seq:
print(item)

6. Set
6.1 What is a Set?

A set is an unordered collection of unique elements.

s = {1, 2, 3}

6.2 Features

 Unordered
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 No duplicates
 Mutable
 Fast membership testing

6.3 Set Operations

[Link](4)
[Link](2)

6.4 Mathematical Operations

a = {1, 2, 3}
b = {3, 4, 5}

a | b # union
a & b # intersection
a - b # difference

6.5 Use Cases

 Remove duplicates
 Membership testing
 Mathematical set operations

7. Dictionary
7.1 What is a Dictionary?

A dictionary stores data in key-value pairs.

student = {
"name": "Riya",
"age": 20
}

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7.2 Features

 Unordered (in concept)

 Mutable
 Keys must be unique
 Fast lookup

7.3 Accessing Values

student["name"]

7.4 Adding/Updating
student["age"] = 21
student["city"] = "Mumbai"

7.5 Removing Items

[Link]("age")

7.6 Iteration
for key, value in [Link]():
print(key, value)

7.7 Dictionary Methods

[Link]()
[Link]()
[Link]()

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Combined Example
class Student:
def __init__(self, name, marks):
[Link] = name
[Link] = marks
students = [
Student("Aman", [80, 90]),
Student("Riya", [85, 95])
]
for s in students:
print([Link], sum([Link]))

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Key Differences Explained

1. Mutability

 List, Set, Dictionary → can change

 Tuple → cannot change

2. Order

 List & Tuple → maintain order

 Set → no order
 Dictionary → ordered (Python 3.7+)

3. Access Method

 List/Tuple → index ([0])

 Set → no indexing
 Dictionary → key (["name"])

4. Duplicates

 List/Tuple → allowed
 Set → removed automatically
 Dictionary → keys must be unique

💡Simple Analogy
 List → Shopping list (can add/remove items)

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 Tuple → Fixed menu (cannot change)
 Set → Unique items collection (no repeats)
 Dictionary → Phone book (name → number)

💡Small Combined Example

data = [1, 2, 2, 3]

print(list(data)) # List
print(tuple(data)) # Tuple
print(set(data)) # Set removes duplicates

d = {"a": 1, "b": 2}
print(d["a"]) # Dictionary access

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Chapter-4

Here are clear, structured, and in-depth notes on:

 Databases & SQL
 SQLite & SQLite Manager
 Spidering Twitter (concept + database use)
 Multiple tables & JOIN

1. Introduction to Databases
What is a Database?
A database is an organized collection of data stored
electronically.
Example:
 Student records
 Banking systems
 Social media data

Why Use Databases?

 Store large data efficiently
 Fast retrieval
 Data consistency
 Multi-user access

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2. Structured Query
Language (SQL)
What is SQL?
SQL (Structured Query Language) is used to:
 Store data
 Retrieve data
 Update/delete data

2.1 Basic SQL Commands

1. CREATE TABLE
CREATE TABLE students (
id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,
name TEXT,
age INTEGER
);

2. INSERT
INSERT INTO students (name, age)
VALUES ('Riya', 20);

3. SELECT
SELECT * FROM students;

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4. UPDATE
UPDATE students
SET age = 21
WHERE name = 'Riya';

5. DELETE
DELETE FROM students
WHERE name = 'Riya';

3. SQLite
What is SQLite?
SQLite is a lightweight, file-based database.
 No server needed
 Stored in a single file (.db)
 Built into Python

3.1 Using SQLite in Python

import sqlite3

conn = [Link]("[Link]")
cur = [Link]()

[Link]("CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS users (name

TEXT, age INTEGER)")

[Link]("INSERT INTO users VALUES ('Aman', 21)")

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[Link]()
[Link]()

4. SQLite Manager
What is SQLite Manager?
A GUI tool to:
 Create databases
 Run SQL queries
 View tables

Examples:
 DB Browser for SQLite
 SQLiteStudio

Basic Workflow
1. Create database
2. Create table
3. Insert data
4. Run queries
5. View results

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5. Spidering Twitter Using a

Database
What is Spidering?
Spidering = collecting data from websites automatically.

Twitter Spidering Concept

 Fetch data (tweets, users, followers)
 Store in database
 Analyze relationships

Example Data to Store

 User ID
 Username
 Followers
 Tweets

Simple Python Concept (Pseudo Example)

import sqlite3

conn = [Link]("[Link]")
cur = [Link]()

[Link]("CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS users (name

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TEXT, followers INTEGER)")

# Example data (instead of real API)

[Link]("INSERT INTO users VALUES ('user1', 100)")

[Link]()

Why Use Database Here?

 Avoid duplicate data
 Track relationships
 Efficient queries

6. Programming with
Multiple Tables
Why Multiple Tables?
To:
 Reduce redundancy
 Organize data
 Maintain relationships

Example Tables
Users Table
CREATE TABLE users (
id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,

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name TEXT
);

Tweets Table
CREATE TABLE tweets (
id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,
user_id INTEGER,
content TEXT
);

Relationship
 One user → many tweets
 Linked using user_id

7. JOIN (Important Concept)

What is JOIN?
JOIN combines data from multiple tables.

7.1 INNER JOIN

Returns matching rows from both tables.

SELECT [Link], [Link]
FROM users
JOIN tweets
ON [Link] = tweets.user_id;

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7.2 LEFT JOIN

Returns all from left + matched from right.

SELECT [Link], [Link]
FROM users
LEFT JOIN tweets
ON [Link] = tweets.user_id;

7.3 RIGHT JOIN (Not supported in SQLite)

Use LEFT JOIN instead.

7.4 Example Output

name content

Riya Hello World

Aman Learning SQL

8. Real-Life Example
(Twitter-like System)
Tables:
 Users
 Followers
 Tweets

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Followers Table
CREATE TABLE followers (
user_id INTEGER,
follower_id INTEGER
);

Query Example (Find followers)

SELECT [Link]
FROM users
JOIN followers
ON [Link] = followers.follower_id;

9. Key Concepts Summary

Database
 Stores structured data

SQL
 Language to interact with database

SQLite
 Lightweight database

Spidering
 Collecting web data into database

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Multiple Tables
 Organize related data

JOIN
 Combine tables using relationships

Using Databases in Python (SQLite)

Python has a built-in module:
import sqlite3

1.1 Connecting to a Database

import sqlite3

conn = [Link]("[Link]") # creates or opens DB

cur = [Link]() # cursor to execute SQL

1.2 Creating a Table

[Link]("""
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS users (
id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT,
name TEXT,
age INTEGER
)
""")

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1.3 Inserting Data

[Link]("INSERT INTO users (name, age) VALUES (?, ?)",
("Aman", 21))
[Link]()

�? prevents SQL injection (very important)

1.4 Fetching Data

[Link]("SELECT * FROM users")
rows = [Link]()

for row in rows:

print(row)

1.5 Closing Connection

[Link]()

2. Full Example (CRUD in Python)

import sqlite3

conn = [Link]("[Link]")
cur = [Link]()

[Link]("CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS students (name TEXT,

marks INTEGER)")

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[Link]("INSERT INTO students VALUES (?, ?)", ("Riya", 90))

[Link]("SELECT * FROM students")

print([Link]())

[Link]()
[Link]()

3. Spidering Twitter Using Python +

Database
3.1 Concept

Spidering =
�Fetch data → Store in database → Expand network

3.2 Database Design

[Link]("""
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS users (
id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT,
username TEXT UNIQUE
)
""")

[Link]("""

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CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS follows (
from_id INTEGER,
to_id INTEGER
)
""")

3.3 Inserting Without Duplicates

[Link]("INSERT OR IGNORE INTO users (username) VALUES (?)",
(name,))

3.4 Simulating Spidering

users = ["aman", "riya", "john"]

for u in users:
[Link]("INSERT OR IGNORE INTO users (username) VALUES
(?)", (u,))

[Link]()

3.5 Creating Relationships

[Link]("INSERT INTO follows (from_id, to_id) VALUES (1,
2)")

4. Working with Multiple Tables in

Python
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4.1 Creating Tables

[Link]("""
CREATE TABLE users (
id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,
name TEXT
)
""")

[Link]("""
CREATE TABLE tweets (
id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,
user_id INTEGER,
content TEXT
)
""")

4.2 Inserting Data

[Link]("INSERT INTO users VALUES (1, 'Aman')")
[Link]("INSERT INTO tweets VALUES (1, 1, 'Hello World')")

5. JOIN in Python (Very Important)

5.1 INNER JOIN
[Link]("""
SELECT [Link], [Link]
FROM users
JOIN tweets
ON [Link] = tweets.user_id

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""")

for row in [Link]():

print(row)

Output

('Aman', 'Hello World')

5.2 LEFT JOIN

[Link]("""
SELECT [Link], [Link]
FROM users
LEFT JOIN tweets
ON [Link] = tweets.user_id
""")

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