CHAPTER 3: Cells and Tissues from the book

Lecturer: Elizalde D. Bana, MD, RN, MN, MAN Legend:

Transcribed by Group 3: CAHATOL, Justine Cassandra from Doc Bana

CAÑAZARES, Althea Ryan
CAYME, Alexandra Paula
CELESTIAL, Remar

3.1 Overview of the Cellular

Basis of Life
Cells
building blocks of life
discovered by Robert Hooke in late 1600s Plasma Membrane
Encloses the cell, forms outer cell boundary
Cell Theory
Nucleus
The cell is the basic unit of life located near the center of the cell
An organism's activity depends on the combined Cytoplasm
actions of its cells, It surrounds the nucleus
Principle of complementarity - activities of the
cells are dictated by their structure (anatomy)
3.2a The Plasma membrane
and functions (physiology).
Cells come from cells
Plasma Membrane
DISCOVERY OF CELLS The barrier separating the contents of
Robert Hooke (1600s) the cell from its surroundings
It's structure allows it to have
coined the word “cell”
numerous roles in various cellular
Theodore Schwann (1838) activities
Animal Cell Theory Fluid mosaic model
Matthias Schleiden (1838)
PLant Cell Theory

Rudolf Virchow (1855)

Cellular Pathology

3.2 Anatomy of a Generalized The structure of the plasma membrane

Cell consists of two layers of phospholipids
(fats)
3 Main Regions of a Cell The proteins attached to the
Plasma membrane, Nucleus & Cytoplasm phospholipids can move freely in the
lipid layer
Phospholipid bilayer types of cell junctions
basic fabric of the membrane
Tight Junctions
Hydrophilic Heads Impermeable junction that Encircles the cells
Phospholipids have “water loving” heads on the Forms sheets that are leak-proof
inner and outer surfaces of the membrane
Desosomes
Anchoring Junctions
Hydrophobic Tails
Stops physically stressed cells from being
Phospholipids have “water hating” tails on the
pushed apart
interior or center of the membrane
Gap Junctions
2 Types of FATS allows communication between cells
Membranes of its adjacent cells are
Saturated Fats completely covered by hollow protein
unhealthy cylinders (connexons) that :
solid at room temp.
Connects the cells
Unsaturated Fats Nutrients or ions go through the
healthy connexons from one cell to another
stay liquid at room temp. Are known as transmembrane proteins

3 components of Phospholipid
3.2 b The Nucleus
head
Glycoproteins
Nucleus
channel protein control center of the cell
Glycocalyx contains Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
sticky, sugar-rich area on the surface of the which serves as a blueprint for the body's
cell. construction.
Glycolipid 3 Main regions:
maintains stability, integrity of the cell and
cellular recognition for tissue

Cell Membrane Junctions

3 ways the cell is bound together:
Glycoproteins - act as an adhesive or cellular
glue
Wavy contours of the adjacent cells fit together
Nuclear Envelope
Cell membrane junctions - are formed and the
Forms the nuclear boundary
structures of these junctions depend on their
roles. Has two layers that fuse at different
times
 Has two layers that fuse at different times cytoplasmic organelles
Creates opening known as nuclear pores
Mitochondria
Nucleolus Power house of the cell, site
“little nuclei” for ATP synthesis
Made up of one or more structure called nucleoli Tiny,sausage-shaped
Nucleoli - sites where ribosomes are assembled organelles
Chromatin
Ribosomes
Where DNA of an undivided cell wounds around
Site of protein synthesis
Is a protein found all over nucleus
tiny, dark bodies made of
condenses to form dens, rodlike bodies called
proteins and one variety of
chromosomes
RNA called ribosomal RNA

3.2 c The Cytoplasm Endoplasmic Reticulum

system of fluid filled tunnels that coil
Cytoplasm through the cytoplasm
mini circulatory system of the cell
thick fluid that fills each cell and is surrounded
by the cell membrane 2 types of er
“Factory floor” of the cell
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
3 Major components: Cell’s membrane factory
Cytosol studded with ribosomes
Semitransparent fluid that suspends other transport vesicles move
elements. proteins within cell

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Inclusions
Membranous system of tunnels
are stored nutrients or cell products floating in
lacks ribosomes
the cytosol
it functions in lipid metabolism
“cellular pantry” items kept on hand until needed
detoxification of drugs and
Organelles pesticides.
are specialized cellular compartments
Metabolic machinery of the cell Golgi Apparatus
a stack of flattened
membranous sacs tand
associated vesicles close to the
ER
Modifies and packages
proteins arriving from the
RER via transport vesicles
Lysosomes Microtubules
Membranous sacs containing repeating subunits of protein tubulin
acid hydrolases (powerful determine the overall shape of a cell and the
digestive enzymes). distribution of organelles.
Sites of intracellular
digestion. The “stomach” of
the cell.

Peroxisomes
Membranous sacs of oxidase Centrioles
and catalase enzymes. also called centrosome
The enzymes detoxify a best known for their role in generating
number of toxic substances microtubules and also for directing the formation
such as free radicals. of the mitotic spindle during cell division

Cytoskeleton 3.2 d Cell Extensions

Network of protein structures that extend
throughout the cytoplasm 2 varieties:
Cell’s “bones and muscles” by an internal Cilia
framework whiplike cellular extensions
determines cell shape, supports other organelles, short, hair-like structures that propels cells
and provides the machinery for intracellular
Flagella
transport
long, wavy structures and are used to move
Cytoskeleton is made up of: entire cells
Microfilaments Sperm cell - only flagellated cell in the body
most involved in cell motility
Microvilli
producing changes in cell shape
are “alcoves” projecting one cell surface & not
involve microtubules
are tiny, fingerlike extensions of the plasma
membrane
increase the cell’s surface area
Intermediate Filaments
Strong, stable, ropelike fibrous subunits 3.2 e Cell Diversity
They help form desmosomes and provide internal
guy wires to resist pulling forces on the cell. Cells that connect body parts:
Fibroblasts
The fiber forming cell
has abundant RER & Golgi Apparatus
Erythrocyte Cell that gather information and
red blood cell controls body function:
transport oxygen
Nerve Cell
Biconcave shape aids flow
it has an extra surface area for all uptake neuron
oxygen & streamlines transmits signal to
other body structures
Cells that cover and line body
organs : Cells of reproduction
Epithelial cells Sperm Cell
Male reproductive cell
outermost covering
carrying genetic
Hexagonal, packable
material.
tear resistance Structure
Flagellum acts as a
motile whip
Cells that moves organs and body
parts Ovum (Egg)
Skeletal muscle cell & Smooth muscle cell Female reproductive cell
cause contractions and movements of the muscles carrying Genetic material
ready for fertilization.
largest cell in the body

3.3 Cell Physiology

Cell that stores nutrients: The internal components of the cell are
intended to function a specified function for
Fat Cell
the cell.
huge spherical shape of a fat cell
The majority of cells have the ability to
lipid droplet is strored in its cytoplasm
metabolize (digest) foods, waste disposal,
is an insulator
reproduction, growth, and movement as well as
Stores energy as fat
react to a stimulus

Cell that fight diseases:

Macrophage cell 3.3A Membrane TRANSPORT
Eats foreign material like virus, covid, and
bacteria.
Membrane Transport
movement of substances into and out of the cell
 2 Basic Methods of Transport: Types of diffusion :
Passive Transport
No energy is required
Active Transport
The cell must provide metabolic energy

Solutions and transport

Solutions Simple Diffusion
homogenous mixture of two or more components Unassisted process
Solvent Solutes are small enough to pass through
dissolving medium membrane pores.
Solute Facilitated diffusion
Components in a smaller quantities within a Larger or polar molecules use transport proteins
solution. for passive transport
the medium that is being dissolved
Osmosis
Transport
Diffusion of water through aquaporins
Intracellular Fluid
nucleoplasm and cytosol ACTIVE Transportation Process
solution containing small amounts of gases 2 Common Forms:
Interstitial Fluid Solute pumping & Bulk Transport
Fluid on the exterior of the cell Solute Pumping
Amino acid, some sugars and ions are transported
Selective Permeability
by solute pumps.
Certain compounds can pass through a barrier
uses ATP to energizes protein carriers, and in most
while barring others from it
cases; moves substances against concentration
Passive Transportation Process gradients.

Diffusion
Particles tend to distribute evenly within a
solution.
Movements is from high concentration a low
concentration or down a concentration gradient.

Vesicular Transport
involves help from ATP to fuse or separate
membrane vesicles, moves substances into or out
 2 types of vesicular transport: Prophase
First part of cell division. Centromeres migrate to
Exocytosis
poles
is the process through which certain cellular
Chromatids - Two identical strands.
wastes are ejected.
Mitotic Spindle - Composed of microtubules
Endocytosis
ATP-dependent mechanisms that transport, by
Metaphase
encapsulating extracellular molecules in a vesicle. Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate.
Metaphase Plate - Center of the spindle midway
2 types of endocytosis: between the centrioles
Phagocytosis Cell eating
Anaphase
Pinocytosis Cell drinking
Daughter chromosomes are pulled toward the
poles.
Cell begin to elongate
3.3b Cell Division
Telophase
Cell life Cycle Prophase in reverse. Daughter nuclei begin
process of the cell’s changes from the very start forming
until it divides Cleavage furrow begins to form
2 major periods:
Cytokinesis
Interphase / Metabolic Phase Division of cytoplasm
period where the cell grows and its metabolic
activities

Cell division
period in which the cell reproduces itself.

EVENTS OF CELL DIVISION :

Mitosis
Cytokinesis
DNA replication
Mitosis
the DNA is duplicated
Dividing a nucleus into two daughter nuclei with
occurs at the end of interphase
the same genes as the mother nucleus.
Process of DNA replication :
STAGES OF MITOSIS
1. DNA helix “unzips”, separates into 2 nucleotide
Interphase
chains
No cell division, normal metabolic activity 2. Each nucleotide serve as a template
3. Nucleotides join in a new strand in a RNA
complementary way: messenger and decoder of DNA
A-T Is Single stranded, have Ribose sugar and a
G-C uracil
4. As a result, two DNA molecules are identical to the 3 Varieties of RNA:
original DNA helix, each consisting of the old and the
new nucleotide strand. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
helps form the ribosomes

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Long single nucleotide strand that is the
half of DNA
Carry the “message” containing instructions
for protein synthesis from the DNA to the
ribosomes.

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

small, cloverleaf-shaped molecules
bring amino acids to ribosomes

Process of Protein Synthesis

2 Major Phases :
3.3 c Protein Synthesis
Transcription
Production of proteins Translation
Accomplished at ribosomes in the DNA with the Transcription
help of RNA
complementary mRNA is made
Protein Transfer of information from the base
key substances for all aspects of cell life sequences (nucleic acids) in the DNA gene
into the complementary sequence of mRNA
Fibrous (structural) proteins
by an enzyme.
major building materials for cells DNA = template for transcription
mRNA = product
Globular (functional) proteins Triplet - three base sequence specifying an
for functional roles in the body amino acid on the DNA gene
Codons - Corresponding 3 base sequences
DNA on mRNA
Example:
master blueprint for making proteins
Triplets - AAT-CGT-TCG
Codons - UUA-GCA-AGC
 PART II: BODY TISSUES

Tissues
Groups of cells that are similar in structure
and function

4 primary tissue types:

Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Nervous tissue

3.4 Epithelial Tissues

Translation Epithelial tissue

Covering
mRNA molecules is “decoded” and
is what separates us from the surrounding
translated from nucleic acids to proteins
environment.
occurs in cytoplasm
Glandular epithelium
Events of Translation: forms various glands in the body.
1. DNA is the template and mRNA is the product
Epithelial Functions include:
2. tRNA delivers amino acids to the ribosome
Protection
3. tRNA also recognize the mRNA codons to double
Absorption
check that the amino acids will be added in
Filtration
correct order by a special three-base sequence
Secretion
on their “head” called anticodon - temporarily
bind to the complementary codons 3.4a Hallmarks of Epithelium
4. Amino acids are then joined together with
peptide bonds catalyzed by the large ribosomal 2 Hallmarks of Epithelial Tissue:
One free surface
subunit. Then begin folding into the final
Avascular - No blood supply of their own
protein structure.
and depend on diffusion
5. tRNA is released and moves away to pick up
another amino acid. When the last codon is read, Epithelial cells
protein is released fit closely together to form continuous sheets
that are bound together by specialized cell
junctions
Epithelial cells SHAPES OF THE CELLS:
Epithelial tissues are avascular Squamos Cells
Epithelial cells regenerate themselves easily if Flattened
well nourished
Cuboidal Cells
Apical Surface
Cube-shaped
Exposed to the body’s exterior
Columnar Cells
Anchored surface (basal)
shaped like columns
Structureless material secreted by the
epithelial cells
SIMPLE EPITHELIA
Focuses on absorption, secretion and filtration
because it is usually very thin

Simple Squamos Epithelia

Rests on the basement membrane as thin
squamous cells
3.4 b Classification of epithelia Forms membranes where filtration by rapid
diffusion occurs
2 names of epithelium :
Simple Epithelium
one layer of cells

Simple Cuboidal Epithelia

Rests on the basement membrane as cuboidal
Stratified epithelium cells
more than one cell layer Commonly found in glands and their associated
small tube called ducts
Simple Columnar Epithelium Can be found in sites that receive a good
Made up of a single layer of tall cells that fit friction like mouth, skin and esophagus
close together and nuclei appear to form a
straight line.
Example: Goblet cells that produce lubricating
mucus

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

2 cell layers, surface cells are cuboidal in
shape
Can be found in the ducts of large glands

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium (type of

a simple columnar epithelium) Stratified Columnar Epithelia
Some of its cells are shorter than the others Surface cells are columnar cells, and Basal cells
and their nuclei appear at different heights vary in size and shape
functions in absorption and secretion
Transitional Epithelium
A stratified squamous epithelium that forms
the lining of only a few organs
Cells of its basal layer are cuboidal or
columnar
Has the ability to slide past one another and
change their shape
Simple Columnar Epithelium
Made up of a single layer of tall cells that fit
close together and nuclei appear to form a
straight line.
Example: Goblet cells that produce lubricating
mucus

STRATIFIED EPITHELIA Glandular Epithelium

2 or more layers, function is primarily for A gland consists of one or more cells that make
protection and secrete a product.

Stratified Squamous Epithelium Stratified 2 Major glands:

(Squamous Epithelium)
Exocrine Gland
most common, stratified epithelium many Their secretions exits all the way through
layers their ducts to the epithelial surface
 Examples of exocrine glands: sweat, oil glands, Types of Connective Tissue:
liver and pancreas (all both internal and
Bone
external)
osseous
Endocrine Glands has an ability to protect and support other
Ductless glands and secretions diffuse directly body organs
into the blood vessels composed of: osteocytes (bone cells) sitting in
Examples of endocrine glands: Thyroid, lacunae, matrix of calcium salts, many collagen
adrenals and pituitary. fibers

3.5a Extracellular Matrix

Cartilage
A complex network made up of a variety of
less hard and flexible
multidomain macromolecules.
Its major cell type is chondrocytes (cartilage
Organized in a cell/tissue-specific fashion.
cells).
2 Main elements: Types of Cartilage:
Ground Substance Hyaline Cartilage
mostly water, cell adhesion proteins and abundant collagen fibers hidden by a
polysaccharide molecules rubbery matrix

Fiber Fibrocartilage
Collagen Fibers forms the cushion-like disks between the
high tensile strength vertebrae of the spinal column
Highly compressible
Elastic Fibers
Elastic Cartilage
has the ability to stretch and recoil
is found in structures with elasticity
Reticular Fibers
a type of fine collagen Dense Connective Tissue
also called dense regular fibrous tissue
form internal “skeleton of soft organs”
collagen fibers are the main matrix element
Locations:
3.5 b Connective Tissue Tendons
Ligaments
Connective Tissue Dermis
A gland consists of one or more cells that make Loose Connective Tissue
and secrete a product. tissues are softer and have more cells and
They connect structures, serve as a fewer fibers than any other connective tissue
framework, and provide support for organs. type except blood.
 Types of LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE:
3.6 Muscle Tissue
Areolar
fluid nature, areolar connective tissue Muscle Tissue
provides a reservoir of water and salts for are highly specialized to contract, or shorten,
the surrounding tissues, which generates the force required to
“Universal packing tissue” to hold organs in produce movement.
place
3 TYPES:
lamina propia - layer of areolar tissu,
Skeletal Muscle
underlies all membranes
Cardiac Muscle
Smooth Muscle

3.6A Skeletal muscle

Skeletal Muscle
skeletal muscle tissue is tissue packaged by
Adipose connective tissue sheets into organs which are
fat, an areolar tissue which have a lot of attached to the skeleton
fat cells long, cylindrical and multinucleate
functions: insulator, protects, serves as a voluntary, multinucleate, striated, attached to
storage for fuel skeleton
Often called Muscle Fibers since skeletal
muscle cells are elongated

Reticular
consists of a delicate network of
interwoven reticular fibers associated
3.6b Cardiac muscle
with reticular cells
“cellular bleachers” where other cells can Cardiac Muscle
observe their surroundings. involuntary, uninucleate, striated,
found only in the heart wall
Blood
intercalated discs - branching cells that fit
vascular tissue
tightly together
is considered a connective tissue because it
As it contracts, it helps the the heart to pump
consists of blood cells surrounded by a
blood
nonliving, fluid matrix called blood plasma
 3.6c Smooth muscle

Smooth Muscle
visceral muscle because there is no striations
is found in the walls of hollow organs
such as the stomach, uterus, and blood vessels.
Contractions of smooth muscle are longer and
slower than the other two muscle types.
Example:
Peristalsis (per0 ̆ı-stal9sis), a wavelike
3.8 Tissue Repair
motion that keeps food moving through the (Wound Healing)
small intestine.

2 Ways of wound healing:

Regeneration
injured tissue is replaced by the same type of
cells
Fibrosis
wound is repaired by scar tissue
3.7 Nervous Tissue
Events of wound healing:
Neurons Inflammation sets the stage
Granulation tissue forms
cells in the nervous tissue
Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent
Receive and send impulses from one part of the
body to another Neoplasms
2 Major Function: means “new growth”
Irritability Abnormal cell growths when normal control of
conductivity cell division is lost

Neuroglia Hyperplasia
increase in size of tissue when irritated
group of supporting cells
Insulate, support and protect the neurons Atrophy
decrease in size of tissue
 END OF TRANSCRIPTION
REFERENCE:
Marieb, Elaine N et. al. (2002) Essentials of
Human Anatomy & Physiology 13th Edition
Pearson, Hoboken, NJ