CHAPTER 2 :

DATA MODELS
By Nik Nahdiya Nik Kamaruzaman
 Overview
The importance of data models
Data models
Data Models Basic Building Blocks

Sources of Business Rules

Business rules
Importance of Business Rules

Hierarchical model
Network model
Evolution of data models
Relational model
Entity Relationship model

External model
Degrees of Data Conceptual model
Abstractions Internal model
Physical model
Introduction
● Designers, programmers, and end users see data in different ways
● Different views of same data lead to designs that do not reflect
organization’s operation
● Data modeling reduces complexities of database design
● Various degrees of data abstraction help reconcile varying views of same
data
 Data Models

Models
• An abstraction of a real-world object or event
• Useful in understanding complexities of the real-world
environment

Data Models
• Relatively simple representations of complex real-world
data structures
• Often graphical representations
 The importance of data models
● Data model is an abstraction
● End users have different views and needs for data
● Data model organizes data for various users
● Facilitate interaction among the designer, the applications programmer, and the
end user
 Data Models Basic Building Blocks

Entity Attribute Relationship Constraints

is a restriction placed on
is anything / or is a characteristic of Describe an the data
any real world an entity association
object that can Eg:
among entities
store data Eg: • Book Price must less than
Eg: rm1000
Eg: Book_Title, Doc_Id,
Student_Name 1:1, 1:M, M:N • Student CGPA must
Book, Doctor,
Student, between 0.00 and 4.00
• Each Doctor must have at
least 2 specialization
 Business Rules
● Descriptions of policies, procedures, or principles within a specific organization
○ Apply to any organization that stores and uses data to generate information
● Description of operations to create/enforce actions within an organization’s environment
○ Must be in writing and kept up to date
○ Must be easy to understand and widely disseminated
● Describe characteristics of data as viewed by the company
● Sources of business rules include:
○ Company managers
○ Policy makers
○ Department managers
○ Written documentation
○ Procedures
○ Standards
○ Operations manuals
○ Direct interviews with end users
 Business Rules
● The importance of business rules :

Standardize company’s view of data

Communications tool between users and designers

Allow designer to understand the nature, role, and scope of data

Allow designer to understand business processes

Allow designer to develop appropriate relationship participation rules and constraints

 Business Rules
● How to convert from Business Rules to
Data Components : • CUSTOMER
● Example: Entities • INVOICE
“A customer may generate many invoices,
Each invoice can be generated by a customer”
• CustID, CustName
● Generally, nouns translate into entities Attributes • InvoiceNo,InvoiceDesc
● Verbs translate into relationships among
entities
● Relationships are bi-directional. • 1:M (one-to-many)
Relationship
 Business Rules
● Example business rules based on type of relationship :
● 1:1 (one-to-one)
A lecturer has a room, each room is owned by a lecturer.
● 1:M (one-to-many)
A person could have many cars, each car is owned by a person.
● M:N or N:N (many-to-many)
A nurse may served many wards, each ward is served by many nurses.
The Evolution of Data Models
 The Evolution of Data Models

Object
Entity Oriented
Relationship (OO) Model
Relational Model (ERM)
model

Network
model

Hierarchical
model
 Hierarchical Model
● The hierarchical model was developed in the 1960s to manage large amounts of
data for manufacturing projects
● Basic logical structure is represented by an upside-down “tree”
● Hierarchical structure contains levels or segments
○ Segment analogous to a record type
○ Set of one-to-many relationships between segments
Hierarchical Model
 Network Model
● The network model was created to represent complex data relationships more effectively
than the hierarchical model
○ Improves database performance
○ Imposes a database standard
● Resembles hierarchical model
○ However, record may have more than one parent
● Collection of records in 1:M relationships
● Set composed of two record types:
○ Owner - Equivalent to the hierarchical model’s parent
○ Member - Equivalent to the hierarchical model’s child
● Disadvantages of the network model:
○ Cumbersome/ complicated
○ Lack of ad hoc query capability placed burden on programmers to generate code for
reports
○ Structural change in the database could produce havoc in all application programs
Network Model
 Relational Model
● Developed by E.F. Codd (IBM) in 1970
● Table (relations)
○ Matrix consisting of row/column intersections
○ Each row in a relation is called a tuple
● Relational models were considered impractical in 1970
● Model was conceptually simple at expense of computer overhead
● Relational data management system (RDBMS)
○ Performs same functions provided by hierarchical model
○ Hides complexity from the user
● Relational diagram
○ Representation of entities, attributes, and relationships
● Relational table stores collection of related entities
Relational Model
Relational Model
 Entity Relationship Model
● Widely accepted standard for data modeling
● Introduced by Chen in 1976
● Graphical representation of entities and their relationships in a database structure
● Entity relationship diagram (ERD)
○ Uses graphic representations to model database components
○ Entity is mapped to a relational table
○ Entity instance (or occurrence) is row in table
○ Entity set is collection of like entities
○ Connectivity labels types of relationships
● Relationships expressed using Chen notation or Crow’s foot notation
● Crow’s Foot notation used as design standard
Entity Relationship Model
 Entity Relationship Model

relationship
connectivity

relationship name
 Entity Relationship Model

relationship name
connectivity
 Object Oriented Model
● Data and relationships are contained in a single structure known as an object
● OODM (object-oriented data model) is the basis for OODBMS
○ Semantic data model
● An object:
○ Contains operations
○ Are self-contained: a basic building-block for autonomous structures
○ Is an abstraction of a real-world entity
● Attributes describe the properties of an object
● Objects that share similar characteristics are grouped in classes
● Classes are organized in a class hierarchy
● Inheritance: object inherits methods and attributes of parent class
● UML based on OO concepts that describe diagrams and symbols
○ Used to graphically model a system
Object Oriented Model
 Other Models
● Extended Relational Data Model (ERDM)
○ Semantic data model developed in response to increasing complexity of
applications
○ DBMS based on the ERDM often described as an object/relational database
management system (O/RDBMS)
○ Primarily geared to business applications
● The Internet revolution created the potential to exchange critical business information
● In this environment, Extensible Markup Language (XML) emerged as the de facto
standard
● Current databases support XML
○ XML: the standard protocol for data exchange among systems and Internet
services
Data Models Summary
 Data Models Summary
● Common characteristics:
○ Conceptual simplicity with semantic completeness
○ Represent the real world as closely as possible
○ Real-world transformations must comply with consistency and integrity
characteristics
● Each new data model capitalized on the shortcomings of previous models
● Some models better suited for some tasks
 Degrees of Data Abstraction
● Database designer starts with abstracted view, then adds details
● ANSI Standards Planning and Requirements Committee (SPARC)
○ Defined a framework for data modeling based on degrees of data abstraction
(1970s):

External Conceptual Internal Physical

model model model model
 External Model
● End users’ view of the data environment
● ER diagrams represent external views
● External schema: specific representation of an external view
○ Entities
○ Relationships
○ Processes
○ Constraints
● Advantages of external model :
○ Easy to identify specific data required to support each business unit’s operations
○ Facilitates designer’s job by providing feedback about the model’s adequacy
○ Ensures security constraints in database design
○ Simplifies application program development
External Model
 Conceptual Model
● Represents global view of the entire database
● All external views integrated into single global view: conceptual schema
● ER model most widely used
● ERD graphically represents the conceptual schema
● Provides a relatively easily understood macro level view of data environment
● Independent of both software and hardware
○ Does not depend on the DBMS software used to implement the model
○ Does not depend on the hardware used in the implementation of the model
○ Changes in hardware or software do not affect database design at the
conceptual level
Conceptual Model
 Internal Model
● Representation of the database as “seen” by the DBMS
○ Maps the conceptual model to the DBMS
● Internal schema depicts a specific representation of an internal model
● Depends on specific database software
○ Change in DBMS software requires internal model be changed
● Logical independence: change internal model without affecting conceptual model
Internal Model
 Physical Model
● Operates at lowest level of abstraction
○ Describes the way data are saved on storage media such as disks or tapes
● Requires the definition of physical storage and data access methods
● Relational model aimed at logical level
○ Does not require physical-level details
● Physical independence: changes in physical model do not affect internal model
Degrees of Data Abstraction Summary
 Summary
● A data model is an abstraction of a complex real-world data environment
● Basic data modeling components: Entities, Attributes, Relationships, Constraints
● Business rules identify and define basic modeling components
● Types of data model : Hierarchical model, Network data model, Relational model, Entity
Relationship Model, Object-oriented data model
● Data-modeling requirements are a function of different data views and abstraction
levels
Q&A
Discussion