MODULE 1

DIGITAL LOGIC

Positive and negative logic

When a circuit requires logic 1 to operate, engineers may refer to this

condition as positive logic. Thus, the more positive voltage causes the
action to take place. On the other hand, if a circuit requires a logic 0 to cause
action, this type circuit is referred to as negative logic.

Logic gates

Gates are blocks of hardware that produce graphic symbol and its operation can be
described by means of an algebraic expression. The input-output relationship of the
binary variables for each gate can be represented in tabular form by a truth-table. The
most basic logic gates are AND and inclusive OR with multiple inputs and NOT at
other inputs.
The various logical gates are:
[Link]

2. OR

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]
 [Link]

AND Gate
The AND gate produces the AND logic function, that is, the output is 1 if input A and
input B are both equal to 1; otherwise the output is 0.
The algebraic symbol of the AND function is the same as the multiplication symbol of
ordinary arithmetic.
We can either use a dot between the variables or concatenate the variables without an
operation symbol between them. AND gates may have more than two inputs, and by
definition, the output is 1 if and only if all inputs are 1.

OR Gate
The OR gate produces the inclusive-OR function; that is, the output is 1 if input A or
input B or both inputs are 1; otherwise, the output is 0.

The algebraic symbol of the OR function is +, similar to arithmetic addition.

OR gates may have more than two inputs, and by definition, the output is 1 if any input is
1.
Inverter(NOT) Gate
The inverter circuit inverts the logic sense of a binary signal. It produces the NOT, or
complement, function.
The algebraic symbol used for the logic complement is either a prime or a bar over the
variable symbol.

NAND Gate
The NAND function is the complement of the AND function, as indicated by the graphic
symbol, which consists of an AND graphic symbol followed by a small circle.
The designation NAND is derived from the abbreviation of NOT-AND.
NOR Gate
The NOR gate is the complement of the OR gate and uses an OR graphic symbol
followed by a small circle.

Exclusive-OR Gate
The exclusive-OR gate has a graphic symbol similar to the OR gate except for the
additional curved line on the input side.
The output of the gate is 1 if any input is 1 but excludes the combination when both
inputs are 1. It is similar to an odd function; that is, its output is 1 if an odd number of
inputs are 1.
Exclusive-NOR Gate
The exclusive-NOR is the complement of the exclusive-OR, as indicated by the small
circle in the graphic symbol.
The output of this gate is 1 only if both the inputs are equal to 1 or both inputs are equal
to 0.

Combinational circuit
Combinational circuit is a circuit in which we combine the different gates in the circuit, for
example encoder, decoder, multiplexer and demultiplexer. Some of the characteristics of
combinational circuits are following −
1. The output of combinational circuit at any instant of time, depends only on the
levels present at input terminals.
2. The combinational circuit do not use any memory. The previous state of input does
not have any effect on the present state of the circuit.
3. A combinational circuit can have an n number of inputs and m number of outputs.
Block diagram

We're going to elaborate few important combinational circuits as follows.

Half Adder
Half adder is a combinational logic circuit with two inputs and two outputs. The half adder
circuit is designed to add two single bit binary number A and B. It is the basic building
block for addition of two single bit numbers. This circuit has two outputs carry and sum.
Block diagram

Truth Table
Circuit Diagram

Half Subtractors
Half subtractor is a combination circuit with two inputs and two outputs (difference and
borrow). It produces the difference between the two binary bits at the input and also
produces an output (Borrow) to indicate if a 1 has been borrowed. In the subtraction (A-
B), A is called as Minuend bit and B is called as Subtrahend bit.
Truth Table

Circuit Diagram

Full Adder
Full adder is developed to overcome the drawback of Half Adder circuit. It can add two
one-bit numbers A and B, and carry c. The full adder is a three input and two output
combinational circuit.
Block diagram

Truth Table

Circuit Diagram
Full Subtractors
The disadvantage of a half subtractor is overcome by full subtractor. The full subtractor
is a combinational circuit with three inputs A,B,C and two output D and C'. A is the
'minuend', B is 'subtrahend', C is the 'borrow' produced by the previous stage, D is the
difference output and C' is the borrow output.
Truth Table

Circuit Diagram
RIPPLE CARRY ADDER
Multiple full adder circuits can be cascaded in parallel to add an N-bit number. For
an N- bit parallel adder, there must be N number of full adder circuits. A ripple
carry adder is a logic circuit in which the carry-out of each full adder is the carry in
of the succeeding next most significant full adder. It is called a ripple carry adder
because each carry bit gets rippled into the next stage

LOOK AHEAD CARRY ADDER

Carry Look-ahead Adder is the faster adder circuit. It reduces the propagation
delay, which occurs during addition, by using more complex hardware circuitry. It is
designed by transforming the ripple-carry Adder circuit such that the carry logic of
the adder is changed into two-level logic.

given a four bit carry look ahead adder

DECODER
A decoder is a combinational circuit. It has n input and to a maximum m = 2n outputs.
Decoder is identical to a demultiplexer without any data input. It performs operations
which are exactly opposite to those of an encoder.
Block diagram

Examples of Decoders are following.

• Code converters
• BCD to seven segment decoders
• Nixie tube decoders
• Relay actuator

BCD TO SEVEN SEGMENT DECODER

A BCD to Seven Segment decoder is a combinational logic circuit that

accepts a decimal digit in BCD (input) and generates appropriate outputs for
the segments to display the input decimal digit. The truth table is extracted
from the CD4511 IC datasheet. This truth table is interactive.
This BCD to seven segment decoder has four input lines (A, B, C and D) and 7 output
lines (a, b, c, d, e, f and g), this output is given to seven segment LED display which
displays the decimal number depending upon inputs.
Encoder
Encoder is a combinational circuit which is designed to perform the inverse operation of
the decoder. An encoder has n number of input lines and m number of output lines. An
encoder produces an m bit binary code corresponding to the digital input number. The
encoder accepts an n input digital word and converts it into an m bit another digital word.
Block diagram

Examples of Encoders are following.

• Priority encoders
• Decimal to BCD encoder
 • Octal to binary encoder
• Hexadecimal to binary encoder
Priority Encoder
This is a special type of encoder. Priority is given to the input lines. If two or more input
line are 1 at the same time, then the input line with highest priority will be considered.
Multiplexers
Multiplexer is a special type of combinational circuit. There are n-data inputs, one output
and m select inputs with 2m = n. It is a digital circuit which selects one of the n data inputs
and routes it to the output. The selection of one of the n inputs is done by the selected
inputs. Depending on the digital code applied at the selected inputs, one out of n data
sources is selected and transmitted to the single output Y. E is called the strobe or enable
input which is useful for the cascading. It is generally an active low terminal that means
it will perform the required operation when it is low.
Block diagram

Multiplexers come in multiple variations

• 2 : 1 multiplexer
• 4 : 1 multiplexer
• 16 : 1 multiplexer
• 32 : 1 multiplexer
Block Diagram

Truth Table

Demultiplexers
A demultiplexer performs the reverse operation of a multiplexer i.e. it receives one input
and distributes it over several outputs. It has only one input, n outputs, m select input. At
a time only one output line is selected by the select lines and the input is transmitted to
the selected output line. A de-multiplexer is equivalent to a single pole multiple way switch
as shown in fig.
Demultiplexers comes in multiple variations.

• 1 : 2 demultiplexer
• 1 : 4 demultiplexer
• 1 : 16 demultiplexer
• 1 : 32 demultiplexer
Block diagram
Truth Table