Control Loop Characteristics

UNIT-4
 Introduction
• In process control, the elements of a process-control
loop and being able to tune and operate a process-
control loop installation.
• consideration is given to the various ways of setting
up a process control loop system and tuning this
system for optimum performance.
• A complete understanding of such optimization
requires detailed mathematical study of stability
theory, a substantial depth of knowledge of the
process.
• We have to loop stability, optimization techniques,
multiloop DDC operations theory.
 Control System Configurations
• Single Variable:The elementary process-
control loop is a single-variable loop. The loop
is designed to maintain control of a given
process variable by manipulation of a
controlling variable, regardless of the other
process parameters.
 Independent Single Variable
 Interactive Single Variable
• Compound Variable
 Single Variable
Independent Single Variable
Interactive Single Variable
• Regulations are required regardless of
other parameters in the process. • A second single-variable control loop, also shown
in Figure, regulates the temperature of liquid in the
• In these cases, a setpoint is established, tank by adjustment of heat input.
controller action is started, and the system
is left alone. • This also is a single-variable loop that maintains the
liquid temperature at the setpoint value.
• Thus, in Figure , a flow-control system is
used to regulate flow into a tank at a fixed • Under nominal conditions, the flow into the tank is
rate determined by the setpoint. held constant and the temperature is also held
• This system then makes adjustments in constant, both at their respective setpoint values.
valve positions as necessary following a • A change in the setpoint of the flow-control system
load change to maintain flow rate at the appears as a load change to the temperature-control
setpoint value. system, because the fluid level in the tank or rate of
passage through the tank must change.
• The temperature system now responds by resetting
the heat flux to accommodate the new load and
bring the temperature back to the setpoint.
• When these two loops interact.
• Almost any process where several variables are
under control shows such interactive behavior.
• Any cycling or other instability of the flow-control
loop causes cycling in the temperature system
because of this interaction.
 Compound Variable
• A single process-control loop is used to provide
control of the relationship between two or more
variables.
• This can be accomplished by using measurements
from two sensors as input to the process controller.
• A signal conditioning system must scale the two
measurements and add them prior to input to the
controller for evaluation and action.
• The analysis of such systems can become quite
complicated.
• A common example is when the ratio of two reactants
must be controlled.
• In this case, one of the flow rates is measured but
allowed to float (that is, not regulated), and the other
is both measured and adjusted to provide the specified
constant ratio.
• An example of this system is shown in Figure.
• The flow rate of reactant A is measured and added,
with appropriate scaling, to the measurement of flow
rate B.
• The controller reacts to the resulting input signal by
adjustment of the control valve in the reactant B input
line.
 Cascade Control
• The inherent interaction that occurs between two control
systems in many applications is sometimes used to provide
better overall control.
• One method of accomplishing this is for the setpoint in one
control loop to be determined by the measurement of a
different variable for which the interaction exists.
• A block diagram of such a system is shown in Figure .
• Two measurements are taken from the system and each
is used in its own control loop.
• In the outer loop, however, the controller output is the
setpoint of the inner loop.
• Thus, if the outer loop controlled variable changes, the error
signal that is input to the controller effects a change in
setpoint of the inner loop.
• Even though the measured value of the inner loop has
not changed, the inner loop experiences an error
• signal, and thus new output by virtue of the setpoint change.
• Cascade control generally provides better control of the
outer loop variable than is accomplished through a
single variable system.
 Example for cascade control
• An example of a cascade control system shows how it
works and how control is improved.
• Consider the problem of controlling the level of liquid in a
tank through regulation of the input flow rate.
• A single-variable system to accomplish this is shown in
Figure 5a.
• A level measurement is used to adjust a flow-control valve
as a final control element.
• The setpoint to the controller establishes the desired level.
• In this system, upstream load changes cause changes in
flow rate that result in level changes.
• The level change is, however, a second-stage effect here.
• Consequently, the system cannot respond until the level
has actually been changed by the flow rate change.
• Figure 5b shows the same control problem solved by a
cascade system.
• The flow loop is a single-variable system as described
earlier, but the setpoint is determined by a measurement of
level.
• Upstream load changes are never seen in the level of liquid
in the tank because the flow-control system regulates such
changes before they appear as substantial changes in level.
 MULTIVARIABLE CONTROL SYSTEMS
• Often complex industrial process is multivariable because
many variables exist in the process and must be regulated.
• In general, however, many of these are either non-
interacting or the interaction is not a serious problem in
maintaining the desired control functions.
• In such cases, either single-variable controls or cascade
loops suffice to effect satisfactory control of the overall
process.
• Multivariable refers to those processes wherein many
strongly interacting variables are involved.
• Such a multivariable system can have such a complex
interaction pattern that the adjustment of a single setpoint
causes a profound influence on many other control loops in
the process.
• In some cases, instabilities, cycling, or even runaway result
from the indiscriminate adjustment of a few setpoints.
 Analog control
• When analog control loops are used in multivariable systems, a carefully
prepared instructional set must be provided to the process personnel
regarding the procedure for adjustment of setpoints.
• Generally, such adjustments are carried out in small increments to avoid
instabilities that may result from large changes.
• Example: Suppose we have a reaction vessel in which two reactants are
mixed, react, and the product is drawn from the bottom. We are now
concerned with controlling the reaction rate. Also the reaction temperature
and vessel pressure below certain limits, and finally, the level is to be
controlled at some nominal value.
• If the reactions are exothermic—that is, self-sustaining and heat-
producing—then the relation among all of these parameters can be critical.
• If the temperature is low, then an indiscriminate increase in steam-flow
setpoint could cause an unstable runaway of the reaction.
• In this case, the level and reaction flow rates must be altered as the steam-
flow rate is increased to maintain control.
• The necessary steps are often empirically determined or from numerical
solutions of complicated control equations.
 Supervisory and Direct Digital
Control
• The computer is ideally suited to the type of control problem presented by
the multivariable control system.
• The computer can make any necessary adjustments of system operating
points in an incremental fashion, according to a predetermined sequence,
while monitoring process parameters for interactive effects.
• The problem in such a system is determining the algorithm that the computer
must follow to provide the control function of the setpoint-change sequence.
• In some cases, control equations are used. Usually, in complex interactions,
these relations are not analytically known.
• In some cases, self-adapting algorithms are used, causing the computer to
sequence through a set of operations and letting the result of one operation
determine the next operation.
• As an example, if the temperature is slightly raised and the pressure rises,
then drop the temperature, and so on.
• The computer can sequence through a myriad of such micro adjustments of
setpoints looking for the optimum adjustment path.
 Example of Direct Digital Control
• A process requires adjustment of setpoints to
increase production. A particular sequence must
• be followed to provide the increase. SP1, SP2,
and SP3 are the setpoints, P and PCR are the
• pressure and a critical pressure, respectively,
and T and TCR are the temperature and critical
• temperature, respectively. Develop a flowchart
that increases the setpoints as follows:
1. Increase SP1 by 1%.
2. Wait 10 s, test for pressure compared to
critical.
3. If the pressure is less than critical, then
a. decrease SP2 by (1/2)%
b. increase SP3 by (3/4)%
c. wait for T ˂TCR
d. increase SP2 by 1%
e. go to step 1
4. If the pressure is above critical,
a. decrease SP1 by (1/2)%
b. decrease SP2 by (1/4)%
c. go to step 2
 CONTROL SYSTEM QUALITY
• When a manufacturing concept is to be implemented, the ultimate goal is to
develop a product that satisfies present “design” criteria.
• If the product is crackers, they should have a certain colour, flavour, salinity,
size, and so forth. If it is gasoline, it should possess certain octane,
antioxidants, viscosity, and so forth.
• The manufacturing process depends on the operation of a set of process-
control loops to impart the desired characteristics to the product.
• The control system quality is verified by checking, whether such control
provides a product that is within specifications.
• The operation cannot even get started unless that level of quality is provided.
• The given control system can provide a product that meets specifications,
we ask how well it does perform this job, what variation in parameters
exists, what percentage of rejected product occurs, and so on.
• To answer these questions, we must first describe measures of quality in a
control system and then analyze how the loop characteristics affect these
measures.
 Definition of Quality
• In Process control loop, the variable under control is dynamic, changing under
many influences, and therefore needs regulatory operations.
• It is impossible for a control loop to regulate this variable to exactly the setpoint.
• When considering quality, we must accept from the outset that perfect control is
impossible and that some inevitable deviations of variables from the optimum
values will occur.
• A definition of quality is concerned with these deviations and their interpretation
in terms of the ultimate product.
• A process-control technologist is not necessarily in a position to evaluate how
deviations of a loop variable from the setpoint actually
(1) affect the specific properties of the final product,
(2) cause it to be rejected, or
(3) may affect the cost efficiency of the manufacturing process.
• To provide a communication link between the process experts and the product
experts, a set of measures or criteria has been devised.
• These criteria provide a common language so that a product can be evaluated in
terms of the dynamic characteristics of a specific loop and serve, therefore, as
our measure of quality.
• To understand the measure, we must first define quality in terms of the process
control loop.
 Definition of Quality: Loop Disturbance
The process-control system is supposed to provide regulation instantaneous change of the loop
• so that disturbances in the system will cause minimum deviation setpoint from an old value to a new
of the controlled variable from the setpoint value. value.
• The quality of the control system is defined by the degree to
which the deviations that result from the disturbances are
minimized.
• There are three basic types of disturbances that can occur in a
process-control system:
1. Transient
2. Setpoint changes
3. Load changes
• A transient disturbance results from a temporary change of some
parameter in the system that affects the controlled variable.
• It is impractical to use transient disturbances to define control
quality because the nature of a transient cannot be well
defined.
• That is, the transient can vary in duration, peak amplitude,
and shape.
• For definition of quality, we need a more regular type of
disturbance. To be specific, the two other disturbance conditions are
used, both of which introduce a step-function change into the loop.
• A step-function change in setpoint, as shown in Figure 7a, is an
• The second possible disturbance is a step-function change in
process load, as suggested in Figure 7b, that also occurs
instantaneously in time.
• The load change can come from the sudden permanent change of
any of the process parameters that constitute the process load.
• To provide measures of quality, we evaluate how the system
responds to either of these sudden changes.
 Definition of Quality: Optimum Control
• The most universal definition of quality in a control system is:
• The system provides optimum control—that is, the best
control possible. If anything is modified in the system, then the
deviation of controlled variable from a load or setpoint change
is always worse. Thus, the overall settings of the system are at
an optimum. This does not mean that the control is “perfect”
or even very good; it simply means that it is the best it can be.
• Optimum control, and therefore control quality, can be
defined in terms of the three effects resulting from a load or
setpoint change:
1. Stability
2. Minimum deviation
3. Minimum duration
Optimum Control :Stability
• The most basic characteristic in defining process-loop
quality is that it provides stable regulation of the dynamic
variable.
• Stable regulation means that the dynamic variable does not
grow without limit.
• In Figure 8, two types of unstable responses are shown.
• In one case, a disturbance causes the dynamic variable
simply to increase without limit.
• In the other, the variable begins to execute growing
oscillations, where the amplitude is increasing without limit.
• In both cases, some nonlinear breakdown (such as an
explosion or other malfunction) eventually terminates the
increase.
• we assume stable operation has been achieved.
• A controlled variable in some process may be stable and still
cyclic.
• For example, in two-position control where the controlled
variable oscillates between two limits under nominal load
conditions.
• A change in load may change the period of oscillations, but
the amplitude swing remains essentially the same; hence, the
variable is under stable control.
 Optimum Control : Minimum
Deviation & Minimum Duration
• Minimum Deviation • Minimum Duration
• If a process-control loop has been • If a disturbance occurs, we can
adjusted to regulate a variable at some conclude that some deviation
setpoint value, then an obvious will occur.
definition of quality is the extent to • Another definition of quality is the
which a disturbance causes a length of time before the controlled
deviation from that setpoint. variable regains or adopts the
• Where a disturbance is a change in setpoint value, or at least falls within
setpoint, This can be considered as the acceptable limits of that value.
any overshoot or undershoot of the • Thus, the quality of a process-control
variable in achieving the new setpoint. loop is defined through an evaluation
In general, we want to minimize any of stability, minimum deviation, and
deviation of the dynamic variable minimum duration following a
from the setpoint value. disturbance of the dynamic variable.
 Measure of Quality
• The final product also may favour a less-than-absolute
minimum adjustment to provide for a faster production
rate at an acceptable degradation in product
specification.
• To accommodate such circumstances, we
distinguish several measures of quality by which we
can convey the degree to which we have approached
the ideals.
• Assume stable operation has been achieved. There are
three possible responses to a disturbance that a dynamic
variable in a process-control loop can execute.
• The specific response depends on the controller gains
and lags in the process.
 Response based on gain and lags
 Overdamped:
• The loop is overdamped, the deviation approaches the
setpoint value smoothly (following a disturbance) with no
oscillations.
• The duration is not a minimum in such a case. For that matter,
• The deviation itself usually is not a minimum either. Such a
response is safe, however, in ensuring that no instabilities occur
and that certain maximum deviations never occur.
 Critically Damped:
• Careful adjustment of the process-control loop brings about curve
B
• In this case, the duration is a minimum for a noncycling response.
• This is the optimum response for a condition where no overshoot
or undershoot is desired in a setpoint change, or no cycling, in
general, is desired.
 Underdamped:
• The natural result of further adjustments of the process-control
loops is cyclic response, where the deviation executes a number
of oscillations about the setpoint.
• It is possible that this response gives minimum deviation and
minimum duration in some cases.
• If the cycling can be tolerated, then such a response is preferred..
 Two specialized measures of control
 Quarter Amplitude:
• When a process-control loop has a damped cyclic
response to a disturbance, a criterion is sometimes
used that is neither minimum deviation nor minimum
duration.
• This measure of quality is found by adjusting the loop
until the deviation from a disturbance is such that each
deviation peak is down to one-quarter of the
preceding peak.
• In this case, the actual magnitude of the deviation is
not included in the measure, nor is the time between
each peak.
• In this sense, neither duration nor magnitude of the
deviation is directly involved in a quarter-
amplitude
 Minimum Area:
• In cases of cyclic or underdamped response, the most
critical element is sometimes a combination of
duration and deviation, which must be minimized.
• Thus, if minimum deviation occurs at one loop
setting and minimum duration at another, then neither
is optimum.
• One type of optimum measure of quality in these
cases is to minimize the net area of the deviation as a
function of time. In Figure 11, this is shown as
• the sum of the shaded areas. Analytically, this can be
expressed as criterion.
 PROCESS LOOP TUNING
• Open-Loop Transient Response Method:
• This method of finding controller settings was
developed by Ziegler and Nichols and is sometimes
referred to as a process-reaction method.
• The basic approach is to open the process control
loop so that no control action (feedback) occurs.
• This method can be used only for systems with
self- regulation.
• At some time, a transient disturbance is introduced
by a small, manual change of the controlling variable
using the final control elements
 Open-Loop Transient Response
Method:
• A typical open-loop controller response is shown in Figure.
• where the disturbance is applied at t1.
• We have expressed the deviation as a percent of range as usual, and we assume the final
control element disturbance also is expressed as a percentage change.
• A tangent line, shown as a dashed line, is drawn at the inflection point of the curve
• The inflection point is defined as that point on the curve where the slope stops increasing
and begins to decrease.
• Where the tangent line crosses the origin, we get L = lag time in minutes
• we get T, the process reaction time, and

• In the latter case, a log ratio is used, defined by

Open-Loop Transient Response
Method:
 Ziegler-Nichols Method
• The particular method is accomplished through the
following steps:
1. Reduce any integral and derivative actions to their
minimum effect.
2. Gradually begin to increase the proportional gain
while providing periodic small disturbances to the
process. (These are to “jar” the system into
oscillations.)
3. Note the critical gain, Kc , at which the dynamic
variable just begins to exhibit steady cycling—that is,
oscillations about the setpoint.
4. Note the critical period, Tc , of these
oscillations measured in minutes.
 Ziegler-Nichols Method
• Proportional For the proportional mode alone,
the proportional gain is, KP = 0.5Kc