HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

Cell
฀ Cell Theory:
Two biologists, “Schleiden and Schwann” gave the “Cell theory” which was later on expanded by “Rudolf
Virchow ”. Cell theory states that:
✷ All plants and animals are composed of cells.
✷ Cells are the basic unit of life.
✷ All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
✷ Viruses are the exceptions of cell theory.

฀ Characteristics of Cell:
Cell Shape:
✷ It may be spherical, oval, elliptical, spindle shaped, cuboidal, polygonal, columnar in shape.

Cell Size:
✷ It varies in different organisms.
✷ In prokaryotes, cell size ranges between 1 to 10 μm while in eukaryotes it ranges between 10 to 100μm.
✷ Smallest cell:- (PPLO) Pleuro pneumonia like organism.
Mycoplasma (0.1μm to 0.3 μm).
✷ Largest Plant cell:-Acetabularia (6-10 cm)
✷ Longest cell in Animal:-Nerve Cell

Mycoplasma Acetabularia Neuron

Cell Number:
✷ Single-celled called acellular e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium
✷ Infants have about 2 × 1012 cells.
✷ An adult male has about 100 trillions (1014) cells.
Historical Background of the cell:
✷ 1665 – Robert Hooke discovered the cell and coined the term cellula.
✷ 1673-1674 – Anton Von Leeuwenhoek observed bacteria, spermatozoa, RBCs etc.
✷ 1831 – Robert Brown discovered a nucleus in cells of Orchid root.
✷ 1838-1839 – M.J. Schleiden and Theodore Schwann propounded cell theory.
✷ 1839 – J.E. Purkinje coined the term protoplasm (supported by Von Mohl).

฀ Types of Cell:
On the basis of type of organization, cells are two types :
1. Prokaryotic cells :-They have less developed nucleus without nuclear membrane & nucleolus. e.g.
Bacteria.
2. Eukaryotic cells: These cells are well [Link] have advanced nucleus with nuclear membrane
and nucleolus. e.g. Plants & animals.

[Link]. Characteristics Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

1 Nucleus Absent Present
2 Nuclear Membrane Absent Present
3 DNA Single circular DNA Multiple linear
Many, including mitochondria, Golgi
4 Organelles Few or none
apparatus, etc.
5 Ribosomes Smaller Larger
6 Cell size Generally smaller (1–10μm) Generally larger (10-100 μm)
7 Examples Bacteria, Archaebacteria Plants, Animals, Fungi, Protists
฀ Cell Organelles:
1. Cell Membrane:
✷ It is a thin, transparent, elastic, regenerative and semipermeable membrane present in both prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells outside the protoplasm.
✷ Also known as cell membrane or plasmalemma.
✷ Plasma membrane is made up of Phospholipids, Proteins and carbohydrates.
✷ The thickness of the plasma membrane is 75 Å.
✷ Trilamellar model/Sandwich model of plasma membrane was proposed by - Danielli & Davson (1935).
✷ In the sandwich model of plasma membrane the bimolecular lipid zone (35 Å thick) is sandwiched
between two protein layers (20 Å thick each).
✷ The Fluid Mosaic Model, proposed by Singer and Nicolson in 1972, is the accepted model for Plasma
membrane resembling the mosaic pattern.

Function:
✷ Transportation of molecules across the plasma membrane.
✷ This can be done by following ways:-
Diffusion: Movement of solutes or ions from higher concentration to lower concentration is called
diffusion. It does not require energy therefore it is called passive transport.
Osmosis: The movement of solvent or water from higher concentration (solvent) to lower concentration
(solvent) through a semipermeable membrane is called osmosis.

Types of Solution:
✷ Isotonic solution: When the concentration of the solution is outside the cytoplasm of the cell it is called
an isotonic solution.
✷ Hypertonic solution: When the concentration of the solution outside the cell is more than that inside
the cell. Due to this, the cell loses water and becomes plasmolysed.
 ✷ Hypotonic solution: When the concentration of the solution outside the cell is lesser than that of
cytoplasm of cell. Due to this, the cell swells up and bursts.

2. Cell wall:
✷ It is the outermost rigid, freely permeable layer found outside the plasma membrane in all the plant
cells, bacteria, blue-green algae, some protists and all fungi.
✷ Rigid semi-elastic, semi-transparent, supportive and protective covering of cells in plants, fungi,
prokaryotes and some protists.
✷ Structure:-Cell wall consists of two parts – gel like matrix and fine microfibrils. A cell wall can have
up to three parts – middle lamella, primary wall and secondary wall.
✷ Composition:-
The matrix consists of water, pectin, hemicellulose, lipids and proteins.
Microfibrils provide rigidity to the cell:-
In Plants:- Cellulose
In fungi:- Chitin
✷ Function:-
○ It protects the outside jerks and also has the ability of regeneration.
○ Due to the semi-permeability nature, it is useful in osmosis, diffusion, transport, pinocytosis and
permeability.

3. Nucleus:
✷ It is a small, round and membrane-bound structure found in cells.
✷ It consists of the nuclear membrane, nucleoplasm, chromosomes, and nucleolus.
✷ It is covered by a dual layer structure called nuclear membrane and plays essential roles in genetic
regulation, protein synthesis, and cell division.
✷ Robert Brown (1831) discovered the nucleus.

฀ Structure of Nucleus:
 It consists of several components:
Nuclear membrane:- It is a double-layered membrane that surrounds the nucleus, separating its contents
from the cytoplasm,continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum allowing the selective exchange of materials
between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
Nucleoplasm:-It is a gel like structure present inside the Nucleus and is similar to the cytoplasm in
composition.
Chromosome:-It is a thread-like structure composed of DNA molecules complexed with proteins called
histones.

Nucleolus:-It is found within the [Link] is involved in the synthesis of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) which is
essential for protein synthesis.

฀ 4. Endomembrane System:
It consists of endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi complex, lysosomes, and vacuoles.
✷ Endoplasmic Reticulum:-It is a network of tubular structure in the [Link] is made up of three
components.
● Cistemae:-long, flattened, parallely arranged.
● Vesicles :-These are around or spherical they are found in Synthetically active cells.
● Tubules:- It is a network of tubules and flattened sacs that serve a variety of functions in the cell.

It exists in two forms:-

 1. RER (Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum) which has ribosomes on its surface and is involved in protein
synthesis and secretion.
2. SER (Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum )which lacks a ribosome on its surface which is involved in lipid
synthesis and secretion.

✷ Golgi apparatus:- It was discovered and first described under the name - internal reticular apparatus by
Camello Golgi.

Units of the Golgi complex are called - Dictyosomes.

They are composed of:-
✓ Cisternae : They are flattened, plate-like tubules.
✓ Vesicles : Are the spherical tubules.
✓ Vacuoles : Are the large spherical peripherally occurring vesicles.
They are composed of lipids and fats mainly and are also known as Lipochondria.
Function:-
✷ They form the plasma membrane of the cell.
✷ They help in the formation of cell walls.
✷ Anterior part of sperms i.e., Acrosome is formed by them.

฀ Lysosome:
✷ Discovered by Christian de Duve (1955) in rat liver cells.
✷ Are tiny spherical sac-like structures surrounded by a single, thin bio-membrane which contain
digestive enzymes (like hydrolases) for intracellular digestion and waste disposal.
✷ Lysosomal enzymes are made by RER.
✷ It is abundant in digestive glands.
✷ The most important enzyme in lysosomes is acid phosphates.
 ✷ They serve as an intracellular digestive system, hence, called digestive [Link] destroy and digest
any foreign material like bacteria, food as well as old organelles in the cell. This is called heterophagy.

฀ Vacuoles:
✓ Vacuoles are fluid filled or solid filled single membrane bound spaces.
✓ In plant cells, a single prominent very large vacuole is present which occupies 50-90% of cell volume.
✓ In a plant cell, vacuole is bound by a membrane called tonoplast:

✷ Isotonic solution

฀ Function:-
✷ It plays an important role in expelling excess water and waste from the cell in unicellular organisms.
This is called osmoregulation and excretion.
✷ They provide turgidity and rigidity to the plant cells.
✷ They store and help in digestion of food in unicellular organisms (food vacuole).:

฀ 5. Mitochondria:
✷ Mitochondria is a double walled structure. Each membrane is 60 Å thick and both membranes are
separated by a 60–80Å inter membrane space.
✷ Size of the mitochondrion - 0.5 to 1 μ diameter, 5-7 μ in length.
✷ Mitochondria are considered as - bioplasts, cellular furnaces, power houses of the cell.
✷ Finger-like or plate-like infoldings of inner membrane into the matrix are called CristaeIts main
function is to produce and store the energy in the form of ATP.
✷ It is the site of the Kreb cycle of respiration.
✷ Oxysome contains enzymes for ATP production.
✷ Function of Oxysomes - generation of ATP by oxidative phosphorylation.
✷ The matrix contains enzymes for the Kreb cycle.
฀ 6. Ribosome:
✷ It is the site of protein synthesis.
✷ Ribosomes are typically composed of two subunits, a large subunit and small subunit. These subunits
are synthesized by the nucleolus
✷ Ribosomes are spherical in shape and consist of two parts – In (80S; 60S and 40S) while in 70S (60S
and 30S) are the subunits, in which 60S and 50S are the main subunits which are dome shaped while
40S and 30S are cap like structures.
✷ Eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S & 70S ribosomes.
✷ Membrane less cell organelles

฀ 7. Plastid:
✷ Occur in most plant cells and are absent in animal cells.
✷ They have their own genome (DNA) and ribosomes.
✷ Plastids are divided into:-
Chromoplasts : Coloured plastids (i.e. orange, yellow, green etc.)
Chloroplasts : Plastids having green pigment chlorophyll, are called chloroplasts. Hence, they take part
in photosynthesis. Therefore, it is called ‘kitchen of the cells'
Leucoplast: They are colourless plastids and are mostly found in storage organs e.g. potato and nuts.

● Function:-
✓ Chloroplasts trap solar energy and use it to manufacture food for the plant.
✓ Chromoplasts impart various colours to flowers.
✓ Leucoplasts store starch, fats and protein.
฀ Peroxisome:
✷ Small, membrane bound organelles enclosed by a single membrane.
✷ They contain important enzymes such as oxidases (peroxide producing enzymes), peroxidases and
catalases (which break down toxic peroxides to water and oxygen).

Cell Division:
฀ Phases of Cell Cycle:
✷ Interphase
✷ M phase:

฀ Interphase:
✷ longest phase of the cell cycle.
✷ It is the “preparation phase” before the actual division happens.
✷ Three subphases of Interphase :-
✓ G1 (Gap 1):- Cell grows and is metabolically active but does
✓ S (Synthesis):- The amount of per cell becomes double but chromosome number remains the
same. In animal cells during S phase, DNA replication begins in the nucleus, and centrioles
duplicate in the cytoplasm.
✓ G2 (Gap 2):- It involves protein synthesis.
Some adult animal cells, like heart cells, and others divide only as needed to replace lost cells,
exiting G1 to enter a non-dividing state called G0. Cells in G0 remain metabolically active but
only proliferate when needed by the organism.
฀ M Phase:
✷ It is an equational division.
✷ Phase where actual cell division occurs.
✷ It consists of two main process
• Karyokinesis
 • Cytokinesis

Karyokinesis is further divided into four phases:

✷ Prophase
✷ Metaphase
✷ Anaphase
✷ Telophase

฀ Prophase:
✷ It is further divided into Early Prophase ,Late Prophase.
✷ It follows S and G2 phases of interphase.
✷ It starts with the condensation of chromosomal material.
✷ Centrosomes, duplicated during S phase, move towards the opposite pole .
✷ Late prophase lacks Golgi complexes, endoplasmic reticulum, nucleolus, and nuclear envelope when
viewed under a microscope.

Fig:-Diagram showing stages of Mitosis

Source :-NCERT Text Book Class 11
Metaphase:
✷ Complete disintegration of the nuclear envelope occurs.
✷ Chromosomes spread throughout the cell cytoplasm, and by the end of this stage, the condensation is
complete, and visible under a microscope.
Anaphase:
✷ Each chromosome positioned at the metaphase plate divides simultaneously.
✷ The resulting daughter chromatids, now known as daughter chromosomes, begin moving toward
opposite poles.

Telophase:
✷ Chromosomes that have reached the poles become less condensed and lose their distinct structure.
✷ Individual chromosomes become indiscernible, and chromatin material tends to gather at each pole.
฀ Meiosis:
✷ It is also known as reductional division.
✷ Cell division that halves the chromosome count, leading to the generation of haploid offspring cells, is
termed as meiosis.
✷ It is divided into two phases:- Meiosis I ,Meiosis II

Phases of Meiosis I:
✷ Prophase I:-This phase comprises five distinct stages:
Leptotene:-It marks the initial stage where chromosomes gradually become visible under the light
microscope while continuing to compact.
Zygotene :- Homologous chromosomes start pairing together through a process known as synapsis,
forming structures called bivalents or tetrads, helped by the development of a synaptonemal complex.
Pachytene :- It is characterized by the distinct appearance of four chromatids within each bivalent and
the initiation of crossing over at specific points known as recombination nodules, facilitated by the
enzyme recombinase.
Diplotene:-The dissolution of the synaptonemal complex occurs, and chiasmata, the visible
manifestations of crossover points, become more pronounced.
Diakinesis :- It marks the final stage of prophase I, characterized by the terminalization of chiasmata,
full condensation of chromosomes, and the assembly of the meiotic spindle, signaling the transition to
metaphase.
฀ Meiosis II
Prophase II: This stage in meiosis II starts immediately after cytokinesis, often before chromosomes fully
elongate. The nuclear membrane vanishes by the end of prophase II, and chromosomes recompact.
Metaphase II: This stage sees chromosomes aligning at the equator, with microtubules from opposite spindle
poles attaching to sister chromatids’ kinetochores.
Anaphase II: This stage begins with the simultaneous splitting of each chromosome’s centromere, allowing
sister chromatids to move toward opposite poles through microtubule shortening.
Telophase II: This stage marks the end of meiosis, during which two sets of chromosomes are once again
enclosed by a nuclear envelope.

Forms of Intracellular Signaling

฀ 1. Second Messenger Systems:
✷ Small molecules that relay signals from receptors to target molecules inside the cell.
✷ Examples include:
1. cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate): Activates protein kinase A (PKA).
2. IP₃ (inositol trisphosphate): Releases calcium from intracellular stores.
3. DAG (diacylglycerol): Activates protein kinase C (PKC).
4. Ca²⁺ (calcium ions): Acts as a universal signaling molecule.
 5. cGMP (cyclic guanosine monophosphate): Involved in phototransduction and vasodilation.
฀ 2. Kinase Cascades:
✷ Sequential activation of protein kinases that phosphorylate target proteins.
✷ Key pathways include:
1. MAPK (Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase) Pathway: Regulates gene expression, cell division,
and differentiation.
2. PKA (Protein Kinase A): Activated by cAMP; influences metabolism and gene transcription.
3. PKC (Protein Kinase C): Activated by DAG and Ca²⁺; involved in various cellular functions.
4. CaMK (Calcium/Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinase): Activated by Ca²⁺/calmodulin
complex; plays roles in learning and memory.

฀ 3. G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) Signaling:

GPCRs are membrane receptors that activate heterotrimeric G-proteins upon ligand binding.
Activated G-proteins can:
● Stimulate or inhibit adenylate cyclase, affecting cAMP levels.
● Activate phospholipase C, leading to IP₃ and DAG production.

฀ 4. Intracellular Receptor Signaling:

✷ Some ligands, like steroid hormones, cross the plasma membrane and bind to intracellular receptors.
✷ The ligand-receptor complex often acts as a transcription factor, directly influencing gene expression.
✷ Examples include:
o Glucocorticoid Receptors: Regulate genes involved in metabolism and immune responses.
o Estrogen Receptors: Influence reproductive and other systems.

฀ 5. Feedback Mechanisms and Signal Integration:

✷ Intracellular signaling pathways often involve feedback loops:
o Positive Feedback: Enhances the signal, potentially leading to a rapid and robust response.
o Negative Feedback: Attenuates the signal, preventing overactivation and maintaining homeostasis.