6 CONSTRUCTIONS

AND TILINGS

6.1 Geometric Constructions

Eyes
Do you recall the ‘Eyes’ construction we did in Grade 6?

Of course, eyes can be drawn freehand, but we wanted to construct

them so that the lower arc and upper arc of each eye look symmetrical.
We relied on our spatial estimation to determine the two centres, A
and B (see the figure), from which we drew
A
the lower arc and upper arc respectively.
The arcs define a line XY that ‘supports’
the drawing though it is not part of the final
figure. We can start with this supporting line
and systematically find the centres A and B.
For the eye to be symmetrical, or for the
X Y
supporting line to be the line of symmetry, the
upper and lower arcs should have the same
radius. In other words, we must have AX = BX.
Since AX = AY and BX = BY, this means B
AX = AY = BX = BY

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How do we find such A and B? A

From X and Y, draw arcs above and below

XY, with the same radii.
The two points at which the arcs meet,
X Y
above and below XY, give us A and B,
respectively.

Use this to construct an eye.

B

In Fig. 6.1, join A and B with a line. Where Fig. 6.1

does AB intersect XY, and what is the angle A
formed between them?
We observe that AB passes through the
midpoint of XY, and is also perpendicular to it.
A division of a line, or any geometrical X Y
object, into two identical parts is called O
bisection. A line that bisects a given line
and is perpendicular to it, is called the
perpendicular bisector. B

Will the line joining the two points at which

the arcs meet, above and below XY, always be the perpendicular bisector
of XY, i.e., when XY is of any length, and the arcs are drawn using a
radius of any length?
This can be answered through congruence. Let us consider a line
segment XY. Find points A and B such that AX = AY = BX = BY. Draw the
lines AB, AX, AY, BX and BY. Let O be the point of intersection between
AB and XY.

Which two triangles should be congruent for AB to be the perpendicular

bisector of XY (that is, O is the midpoint of XY and AB is perpendicular
to XY)?
A
If we show that ∆AOX ≅ ΔAOY, then Common side
OX = OY, and ∠AOX = ∠AOY because they are
corresponding parts of congruent triangles.
Since ∠AOX and ∠AOY together form a X Y
straight angle, we have ∠AOX + ∠AOY = 180°. O
Thus, ∠AOX = ∠AOY = 90°. This establishes
that O is the midpoint of XY and AB is
perpendicular to XY.
B

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In ∆AOX and ΔAOY, we already know that AX = AY, and AO is common

to both triangles.
If we can show that ∠XAO = ∠YAO then, by
A
the SAS congruence condition, we can conclude Common side
that the triangles are congruent.
To show this, we observe that ∆ABX ≅ ΔABY.
This is so because AX = AY, BX = BY, and AB is
X Y
common to both the triangles. O
Thus, we have ∠XAB = ∠YAB, or
∠XAO = ∠YAO because they are corresponding
parts of congruent triangles.
B
Hence, AB is the perpendicular bisector of XY.

We can have eyes of different shapes.

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C
How do we get these different shapes? Try!
One way is to choose two other points C and D such A
that CX = CY = DX = DY. An eye of a different shape can be
drawn using these points.
X Y
Will C and D lie on the perpendicular bisector AB?
The points C and D are at the same distance from both
X and Y. We have just seen that joining any two such B

points gives the perpendicular bisector of XY. Since XY

has only one perpendicular bisector, which is the line AB, D
the points C and D must lie on the line AB.

Justify the following statement using the facts that we have established.
Any point that has the same distance from X and Y lies on the
perpendicular bisector of XY.
Thus, eyes of different shapes can be drawn by suitably choosing
different pairs of points on the perpendicular bisector as centres to
construct the upper and lower arcs of the eyes.

Construction of Perpendicular Bisector

Given a line segment XY, how do we draw
its perpendicular bisector using only an
unmarked ruler and a compass?
We have seen that joining any two
points — one above XY and one below — that
are at equal distances from X and Y, gives
the perpendicular bisector of XY. This gives
a method to construct the perpendicular
bisector.
1. Taking some fixed radius, from X and
then Y, construct two sufficiently long
arcs above XY. Name the point where the
arcs meet as A.

X Y

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2. Using the same radius, from A

X and then Y, construct two

sufficiently long arcs below XY.
Name the point where the arcs
meet as B. X Y
3. AB is the required perpendicular
bisector.

Thus, the perpendicular bisector can be constructed using the simplest

geometric tools — an unmarked ruler and a compass. We will use only
these two tools for all the other geometric constructions in this chapter,
unless there is a need for drawing lines of specific lengths in standard
units.

Figure it Out
1. When constructing the perpendicular bisector, is it necessary to
have the same radius for the arcs above and below XY? Explore this
through construction, and then justify your answer.
[Hint 1: Any point that is of the same distance from X and Y lies on
the perpendicular bisector.
Hint 2: We can draw the whole line if any two of its points are
known.]
2. Is it necessary to construct the pairs of arcs above and below XY?
Instead, can we construct both the pairs of arcs on the same side of
XY? Explore this through construction, and then justify your answer.
3. While constructing one pair of intersecting arcs, is it necessary that
we use the same radii for both of them ? Explore this
through construction, and then justify your answer.
4. Recreate this design using only a ruler and compass —

After completing the above design, you can use a colour pencil with a ruler
or compass to trace its boundary. This will make the design stand out from
the supporting lines and arcs.

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This method of constructing the perpendicular bisector is not only

geometrically exact but also a practical way to construct it accurately.
This method to find the midpoint of a line segment is more accurate
than measuring the length using a marked scale.

Construction of a 90° Angle at a Given Point

Can we extend the method of
constructing the perpendicular bisector
to construct a 90° angle at any point on O
a line? Draw a line and mark a point O
on it. Construct a 90° angle at point O.

Find a segment of this line for which O

is the midpoint.
Extend the line on either side of O.
Using a compass, mark two points X ( )
X O Y
and Y at equal distance from O, so that
O is the midpoint of XY. Fig. 6.2
The perpendicular bisector of XY will
pass through O and is perpendicular
A
to the given line.
In this case, do we need to draw two
pairs of intersecting arcs to get the
perpendicular bisector of XY?
No, we don’t. We already have one
point, O, lying on the perpendicular
bisector. ( )
Figures 6.2 and 6.3 describe the X O Y
steps to construct a 90° angle at a given
Fig. 6.3
point on a line.

Construction Methods in Śulba-Sūtras

Ancient mathematicians from different civilizations, including India,
knew exact procedures to construct perpendiculars and perpendicular
bisectors.
In India, the earliest known texts containing these methods are the
Śulba-Sūtras. These are geometric texts of Vedic period dealing with the
construction of fire altars for rituals. The Śulba-Sūtras are part of one
of the six Vedāṅgas (a term that literally means ‘limbs of the Vedas’).
The Śulbas contain the methods that we developed earlier to construct
a perpendicular and the perpendicular bisector. All the construction

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methods in the Śulba-Sūtras make use of a different kind of compass

from what you would have used — a rope. A rope can be used to draw
circles or arcs. It can also be stretched to form a straight line.
In addition, the Śulba-Sūtras also contain other methods to construct
perpendicular lines. Here is an interesting construction of the
perpendicular bisector using a rope (Kātyāyana-Śulbasūtra 1.2).
Let XY be the given line segment, drawn on the ground, for which we
need to construct a perpendicular bisector. Fix a small pole or peg
vertically into the ground at each point X and Y.

Take a sufficiently long rope. Make two

loops at its ends. Without taking into account
the parts of the rope that has gone into the
loops, fold the rope into half to find and mark
its midpoint.
Fasten the two loops at the ends of the rope
to the poles at X and Y.

Pull the midpoint of the rope above XY, as A

shown in the figure, such that the two parts
of the rope on either side are fully stretched.
Mark this position of the midpoint as A.
X Y

Now similarly pull the midpoint of the

rope below XY, as shown in the figure, such
that the two parts of the rope on either side X Y
are fully stretched. Mark this position of the
midpoint as B.

AB is the required perpendicular bisector.

B

Fig. 6.4
Figure it Out
1. Justify why AB in Fig. 6.4 is the perpendicular bisector.
2. Can you think of different methods to construct a 90° angle at a Math
Talk
given point on a line using a rope?

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Angle Bisection for a Design

How do we construct this figure?

Fig. 6.5

The supporting lines for this

figure will look like this.

What is the angle between two adjacent lines?

We need the angle between every pair of adjacent lines to be equal.
Since 360° is equally divided into 8 parts, every angle is 45°.

How do we construct a 45° angle using only a ruler and a compass?

We know how to construct a 90° angle. If we can divide it into two
equal parts, or bisect it, then we get a 45° angle.
X

We will now develop a general method to

bisect any angle. Consider an angle ∠XOY.
O
Y

We can bisect it if we can draw two congruent B

C
triangles ΔOBC and ΔOAC as shown in the figure.
Then ∠BOC = ∠AOC.
O
A Y

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How do we construct these congruent triangles, given the angle?

If A and B are marked such that OA = OB, and if C is chosen such that
BC = AC, then by the SSS congruence condition, ΔOBC ≅ ΔOAC. So we can
bisect an angle as follows.

Steps for Angle Bisection

1. Mark points A and B such that OA = OB.

O
A Y

2. Choosing any sufficiently long radius, cut X

arcs from A and B, keeping the radius B C

same. Mark the point of intersection as C.
3. OC bisects ∠AOB.
O
A Y

So, a 45° angle can be constructed by first constructing a 90° angle and
then bisecting it.

Figure it Out
1. Construct at least 4 different angles. Draw their bisectors.
2. Construct the 8-petalled figure shown in Fig. 6.5.
3. In Step 2 of angle bisection, if arcs of X

equal radius are drawn on the other

B
side, as shown in the figure, will the
line OC still be an angle bisector?
Explore this through construction,
C O A Y
and then justify your answer.

Math
4. What are the other angles that can be constructed using angle Talk
bisection? Can you construct 65.5° angle?
5. Come up with a method to construct the angle bisector using
a rope.

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6. Construct the following figure.

How do we construct the petals so that they are of the maximum

possible size within a given square?

Repeating Units and Repeating Angles

Construct the following figure.

Fig. 6.6

In this figure, there is a single unit repeating itself. To construct

this figure, we need to make exact copies of this unit in two different
orientations.

In order to make exact copies, all the units must have the same arm
lengths and the same angle between the arms. We can ensure equal arm
lengths using a compass, but how do we ensure equal angles?
Let us develop a method to create an exact copy of a given angle.
Math
Draw an angle. Create a copy of this angle using only a ruler and Talk
compass.

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You might have developed your own method. Here is one simple
approach.
Steps of Construction to Copy an Angle

1.

A X

2.
B

A X
C

Draw an arc from A.

This gives us three points that form the isosceles triangle ∆ABC.

3.
B

A X
C Z

Draw an arc of the same radius from X.

4.
B Y

A X
C Z

Measure BC using a compass. Transfer this length on the arc

from Z to get YZ = BC.

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5.
B Y

A X
C Z

By the SSS congruence condition, ∆ABC ≅ XYZ. So, ∠A = ∠X.

Figure it Out
1. Construct at least 4 different angles in different orientations without
taking any measurement. Make a copy of all these angles.

2. Construct the Fig. 6.6.

This procedure to copy an angle finds an important application in
constructing parallel lines using only a ruler and compass.

Construction of a Line Parallel to the Given Line

Recall that in the construction using a ruler and a set square, we
constructed equal corresponding angles to get parallel lines.
l
How do we implement this idea using a ruler
and a compass?
Suppose there is a line m to which we need a
to draw a parallel line. We construct a line l A m
that intersects m. Line l will serve as a
transversal to line m and to the line parallel to
Fig. 6.7
m that we are going to construct.
l
Let us choose a point B on l through which we
are going to draw the parallel line. This parallel a
line must make the same corresponding angle, B
as shown in the figure. This can be done by a
m
copying the angle between m and l. A

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Here is a step-by-step procedure for carrying this out.

l l
F

B E
B
D D

m m
A C A C

Fig. 6.8 Fig. 6.9

Construct arcs of equal Transfer the length CD to

radius from A and B the arc from F
l
F

n
B E
D

m
A C

m || n

Fig. 6.10

Figures 6.7–6.10 describe a method to construct a line parallel to the

given line.

Figure it Out
1. Construct 4 pairs of parallel lines in different orientations.
2. Construct the following figure.
S T

H B
Z U

G C

Y V
F D
E

X W

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Arch Designs
Trefoil Arch
Have you seen this kind of beautiful arch?

[Link] [Link]
php?curid=28374748 File:Central_Park_A.jpg
Diwan-i-Aam, Red fort Central park, New York City

How did they make these arches?

The first step is to be able to draw them on a plane surface such as
paper or stone.

Construct this arch shape on a piece of paper.

B C
Let us think about the support lines this
figure will need.
A D

For symmetry, we should have AB = CD, and ∠BAD = ∠CDA.

How would you construct these support lines?

B C

A D A D

Construct equal angles at A and D.

Mark B and C such that AB = CD.

Use these support lines to construct an arch. If required, adjust the radii
of the arcs to make the arch look more aesthetically pleasing.

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A Pointed Arch
Some arches look like this.

[Link]
Diwan-i-Aam, Red Fort

How do we construct this shape?

What supporting lines will you use to
draw this arch?

Remember ‘Wavy Wave’ from the

Grade 6 Textbook?

The supporting lines are just two line

segments of equal length.

If their midpoints are marked, will you be

able to construct a pointed arch?

Fig. 6.11

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Figure it Out
1. Use support lines in Fig. 6.11 to construct a pointed arch. Make
different arches, by changing the radius of the arcs.
2. Make your own arch designs.

Regular Hexagons
Recall that a regular polygon has equal sides and equal angles. A regular
polygon with 3 sides is an equilateral triangle, and a regular polygon
with 4 sides is a square. We have constructed these figures earlier.

How do we construct a regular pentagon (5-sided figure) and a Try

regular hexagon (6-sided figure)? To begin with, try to construct a This
pentagon and hexagon with equal sidelengths.

To construct a regular pentagon, we first need to have a better

understanding of triangles and pentagons. We will discuss this in later
years. However, constructing a regular hexagon is within our reach!
Can we break a regular hexagon into smaller pieces that can be
constructed?
A
Regular Hexagon and Equilateral Triangles
What happens when we join the ‘opposite’ points of a F B
regular hexagon? Since a regular hexagon has equal
sides and angles, can we expect a figure like this? O
Will all the triangles in the figure be equilateral E C
triangles?
To answer these questions, we will reverse our D
approach. Fig. 6.12

Can six congruent equilateral triangles be placed

together as in Fig. 6.12? If yes, will it result in a regular hexagon?

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If six congruent equilateral triangles can indeed be placed as shown

in Fig. 6.12, then the sides of the resulting hexagon are equal, and their
angles are 60 + 60 = 120° (how?). So what we really need to examine
is whether 6 congruent equilateral triangles can fit this way without
overlapping and without leaving any gaps around the centre.
We have defined a degree by taking the complete angle around a point
to be 360°. So all the angles around the centre should add up to 360°.

Consider this figure. Will the 70° angle fit into the gap? What is the gap
angle ∠AOI?
D E
We have,
40° + 60° + 50° + 30° + 40° + 90° + gap angle = 360°. G
Use this to determine whether the 70°angle F
50° 30°
fits the gap. C 60°
B 40°
Thus, if there are angles that add up to 360°, 40°
H
O 90°
their vertices can be joined together at a single
point such that A
?
(a) the angles do not overlap, and I
(b) they completely cover the region around
the point. 70°

Since each angle in an equilateral triangle is

60°, six such angles add up to 360°. Therefore,
six congruent triangles can be arranged as
shown in Fig. 6.12.
In Fig. 6.12 can you explain why AOD, BOE and COF are straight lines?

Construct a regular hexagon with a sidelength 4 cm using a ruler and a

compass.

We can construct a regular hexagon more directly if we can construct

a 120° angle using a ruler and a compass.

How do we do it?
This can be done if we can construct a 60° angle.

If we we also
construct this, get this.

60° 120°

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Construction of a 60° angle

How do we construct a 60° angle?
We get a 60° angle if we construct an equilateral triangle! We can use
the following steps for this.
Suppose we need a 60° angle at point A on a line segment AX.
Step 1

A B X

Construct an arc with centre A and any radius.

Step 2

A B X

With the same radius, cut another arc from B that meets the
first arc. Let C be the point at which the arcs meet.

We have ∠CAX = 60°.

Why is ∠CAX = 60°? Is there an equilateral triangle here?

We can use these ideas to construct a regular hexagon —

Construct a regular hexagon of sidelength 5 cm.

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Related Constructions
Construction of 30° and 15° angles

How will you construct 30° and 15° angles?

6-Pointed Star
Math
Construct the following 6-pointed star. Note that it has a rotational Talk
symmetry.

F G H
B

Hint: L I Do you see a hexagon here?

E K J C

Are the six triangles forming the 6 points of the star — ∆AGH, ∆BHI, ∆CIJ,
∆DJK, ∆ELK, ∆FLG — equilateral? Why?
[Hint: Find the angles.]

Figure it Out
1. Construct the following figures:

(a) (b)
An Inflexed Arc The fun part about this figure is
that it can also be constructed using
only a compass! Can you do it?

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(c) (d) (e)

2. Optical Illusion: Do you notice

anything interesting about the
following figure? How does this
happen? Recreate this in your
notebook.

3. Construct this figure.

[Hint: Find the angles in this figure.]

4. Draw a line l and mark a point P anywhere outside the line. Try
Construct a perpendicular to the given line l through P. This
[Hint: Find a line segment on l whose perpendicular bisector
passes through P.]

6.2 Tiling
Tangrams are puzzles that originated in China. B
E
They make use of 7 pieces obtained by dividing a
square as shown.
D
A
For the problems ahead, we need these 7 C
tangram pieces. These are provided at the end of
the book. Or, by looking at the figure, you could
G F
make cardboard cutouts of the pieces.

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We can form interesting pieces by

rearranging the tangram pieces. Here is
an arrow.

Figure it Out
How can the tangram pieces be rearranged to form each of the
following figures?

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 Constructions and Tilings

Covering a region using a set of shapes, without gaps or overlaps, is

called tiling.
Consider a rectangular grid made of unit squares —

We call this a 4 × 6 grid, since it has 4 rows and 6 columns.

Can a 4 × 6 grid be tiled using multiple copies of 2 × 1 tiles? Math

Talk
We are allowed to rotate a 2 × 1 tile and use it.

Vertical tile Horizontal tile

Here is one way.

Obviously, this is not the only tiling possible.

Can a 4 × 7 grid be tiled using 2 × 1 tiles?

What about a 5 × 7 grid?

To see that there is no way to tile a 5 × 7 grid using 2 × 1 tiles, observe
that this grid has 35 unit squares. Each tile covers exactly 2 unit squares.

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Complete the justification.

Is an m × n grid tileable with 2 × 1 tiles, if both m and n are even? If yes,

come up with a general strategy to tile it.
One general strategy for this case is to cover each column with vertical
tiles. This is possible because the number of rows is even.

Even no.
of tiles

Is an m × n grid tileable with 2 × 1 tiles, if one of m and n is even and the

other is odd? If yes, come up with a general strategy to tile it.

Is an m × n grid tileable with 2 × 1 tiles, if both m and n are odd? Give

reasons.

Here is a 5 × 3 grid, with a unit square removed.

Now, it has an even number of unit squares. Is it Math
Talk
tileable with 2 × 1 tiles?

Is the following region tileable with 2 × 1 tiles?

Math
Talk

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What about this one?

Math
Talk

Fig. 6.13

Were you able to tile this? How can we be sure that this is not tileable?
Can you find another unit square that, when removed from a 5 × 3 grid,
makes it non-tileable?
There is an interesting way to look at these questions. For any tiling
problem of this kind, we can create a similar problem with the unit
squares coloured black and white so that black squares have only white
neighbours and white squares have only black neighbours. For the tiling
problem in Fig. 6.13, we get the following.
Plain grid Black and white grid

Region to
be tiled

Tiles

Fig. 6.14

In the black-and-white region, the problem is to tile the region with

the 2 × 1 black-and-white tiles so that each black square of a tile sits on
a black square of the grid, and each white square sits on a white square.

If the plain grid is tileable, is the black-and-white-grid tileable?

If the black-and-white grid is tileable, is the plain grid tileable? Math

Talk
It can be seen that the answer to both the questions is yes.

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Is the black-and-white region in Fig. 6.14 tileable?

Any region tiled with black-and-white-tiles must have an equal number
of black tiles and white tiles.
Since the black-and-white region in Fig. 6.14 has 8 white squares and 6
black squares, it can never be tiled with these tiles!

Use this idea to find another unit square that, when removed from Math
a 5 × 3 grid, makes it non-tileable? Talk
Isn’t it surprising how, by introducing colours and making the
problem more complicated, it becomes easier to tackle? What a creative
way of looking at the problem!

Figure it Out
Are the following tilings possible?

1.

Region to be tiled Tile

2.

Region to be tiled Tile

Tiling the Entire Plane

So far we have seen how to tile a given region. What about tiling the
entire plane?

Can you think of a shape whose copies can tile the entire plane?
Clearly, squares can.

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Are there other regular polygons that can tile the plane?
What about equilateral triangles?

Tiling with equilateral triangles shows the possibility of tiling with

another regular polygon.
A plane can be tiled using regular hexagons as well.

A plane can also be tiled using more than one shape, and using
non-regular polygons. People such as the great Dutch artist Escher
(1898 – 1972) — whose works explored mathematical themes such as
tiling — have come up with creative ways of tiling a plane with animal
shapes! Here are some examples.

(a) (b)

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(c) (d)

Mathematicians are still exploring various ways of tiling the plane!

Tiling (b) was found as recently as 2023.
Have you seen tilings in daily life? They are often used in buildings
and in designs. Tilings are found in nature too. The front face of
bee hives and some wasp nests are tiled using hexagonal cells!

These cells are used by the insects to keep their eggs, larvae and
pupae safe, as well as to store food. Because the region is tiled, no space
is wasted.
Scientists still wonder how bees and wasps are able to make hexagonal
cells. Next time you see any tiling, pay closer attention to it!
Tiling is still one of the most exciting and active areas of research
in geometry.

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 SUMMARY
• A division of a line segment, or any geometrical quantity, into two
identical parts is called bisection.
• Any point that is of equal distance from the two endpoints of a given line
segment lies on its perpendicular bisector. This property can be used
to construct the perpendicular bisector using a ruler and compass.
• The method of constructing the perpendicular bisector can be
modified to draw a 90° angle at any point on a line using only a ruler
and compass.
• An angle can be bisected and copied using the congruence properties
of triangles.
• A 60° angle can be constructed using a ruler and compass by
constructing an equilateral triangle.
• Covering a region using a set of shapes, without gaps or overlaps, is
called tiling.

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