CHAPTER- I
Evolution of Humans; Palaeolithic and Mesolithic
Cultures
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Evolution of Humans
• Human Origin- Debate- Creation vs Evolution
• Creationists- Biblical traditions-Ready made evolution of earth-
4004 BCE- James Usser (Irish Archbishop), John Lightfoot
(Scientist)
• Evolutionists
❖ Emergence of Geology and Archaeology in the mid 18th century
❖ Findings of human fossils and tools from Germany and France
❖ Charles Darwin’s Theories- natural selection and human
evolution- On the Origin of Species(1859)- Descent of Man
(1871)
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Geological Divisions of the Earth
EON ERA PERIOD EPOCH DEVELOPMENTS
HOLOCENE Growth of Human Civilization until
11000 years ago, until today present day.
QUARTERNERY
(The Age of Humanity)
P 1.6 Mya until today
PLEISTOCENE Evolution of Human Species
H
(Last Ice Age) (Homo Erectus, Homo Sapiens, Homo
A 1.6 Mya until 11000 years ago Sapiens Sapiens)
N Extinction of large Mammals.
E
R
CENOZOIC PLIOCENE Emergence of Early Hominid
O 5 -1.6 Mya (Australopithecines)
(The Age of
Z Mammals) And First Homo species (Homo
O 65 Mya until Habilis).
I today Emergence of Modern forms of
TERTIARY
Whales.
C 65 -1.6 Mya
(540 Mya until
MIOCENE Emergence of horse, dogs and bear.
present day)
23-5 Mya Emergence of Apes.
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Better Adaptability of Humans
Charles Darwin- Theory of natural selection
Humans- coexisted with other organisms-competition for
same set of natural resources
Better Adaptability- Biological and Cultural evolution
Biological- Bipedalism, Larger brain size
Cultural- Tool making, social interaction, acquisition of
language
Both interrelated processes
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Environment and Human Evolution:
The Ice Age I
Environment- Significant impact on emergence and extinction
of organisms
Prolonged period of Cold and Warm climate:
❖ Migration from one continent to the other
❖ Unusual weather conditions (Extreme cold or droughts and
floods)
Better adaptability- must for survival
Pleistocene Epoch- (1.6 Mya till 11000 ya)- ‘The Great Ice
Age’- Frequent changes between Glacial and Inter-glacial
phases (9 phases of Glacial and inter-glacial periods in the last
8 lakh years)
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The Ice Age II
Pleistocene- Glacial Phase
❖ Decline in sea levels
❖ Decline in forests and rise of savanna (open grasslands)-extinction of
forest species and emergence of species of tundra (areas with
minimum vegetation) region
Pleistocene- Inter-glacial Phase
❖ Rise in sea level
❖ Spread of rain forests, emergence of sylvan (forest species)
Pleistocene- ‘Age of Humanity’- The process of human evolution
accelerated- Environment facilitated natural selection of
humans-crucial biological and cultural features
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Emergence of Primitive and
Advanced Primates I
Humans- Part of the order Primates (69 mya)
CLASSIFICATION OF PRIMATES
❖ Prosimii (Primitive primates-69 mya)
Lemurs, Tarsiers, Lorises, Tree shrews etc.-restricted to
parts of Africa, Southeast Asia and Madagascar
Suited to arboreal (tree) habitat
Prehensible hands and feet- extensive use of forelimbs
Stereoscopic vision (3-dimensional)
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Emergence of Primitive and Advanced
Primates II
❖ Anthropoids/Anthropoidea (Advanced Primates-40
mya)
Classification-Monkeys, Apes, Humans
Suitable to terrestrial habitat(Land)-except monkeys
Monkeys- small size, long and developed forelimbs,
better vision, ability to jump with precision- suitable for
arboreal living
Apes and Humans- large size, longer hindlimbs than
forelimbs, powerful body structure- suited for terrestrial
living
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Emergence of Primitive and
Advanced Primates III
❖ Anthropoidea (classification)
Old World Monkeys (Cercopithecoidea-40 mya)
New World Monkeys (ceboidea)
Hominoidea- Apes and Humans
❖ Hominoidea (Classification)
Pongidae- Apes (30 mya)-Chimpanzees, Gorillas,
Gibbon, and Orang-Utans
Hominidae- All human species (extinct and modern)
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Evolution of Pongidae (Apes)-I
Separated from Monkeys 30 mya
Aegyptopithecs- Nile valley in Egypt (30 mya)
Several Apes emerged in Africa (23-20 mya)
Proconsul- Ape (20 mya)- Africa- Ape like teeth but
body like a monkey
Environmental changes-17 mya- Much cooler-land
bridges formed
Continental drift- Africa and Arabia linked with Europe
and Asia
Intermixing of Apes-Mutations- new evolutionary path
opened
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Evolution of Pongidae (Apes)-II
Dryopithecus- African Ape (20 mya)- moved to Asia-
separated into several species
Ramapithecus -Asian Ape-14 mya
Kenyapithecus- East Africa-14 mya
Molecular Biology-DNA analysis- Comparison of Albumin
protein
❖ Humans closer to African Apes than Asian Apes
❖ Humans closer to apes than monkeys
❖ Separation of monkeys and apes-25 mya
❖ Bigger apes from smaller apes-17 mya
❖ Gorillas from Chimpanzees- 8 mya
❖ Hominids from Chimpanzees- 7 mya
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Evolution of Hominids I
Bipedalism- Chief biological difference between apes and
hominids
Traditional Belief- ‘Savanna Hypotheses’- bipedalism emerged in
African savanna type of environment (open grasslands, reduction
in forests)
Modern belief- ‘Climatic variability hypotheses’- evidence of
emergence of bipedal hominids (ardipithecus and
australopithecus anamensis) in wooded and mixed grassland and
forest environment
Beginning of bipedalism (?)-debate- lack of fossil evidence
between 7 and 4 mya
Bipedalism began around 7 mya (later fossil evidence and
molecular biological studies)
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Evolution of Hominids II
Hominoidea (Classification)
❖ Australopithecus/Australopithecines-’Southern Ape’
❖ Homo
Emergence of several bipedal apes between 7-4 mya in
Africa–Ardipithecus ramidus (4.5 mya)-bipedal but ape like skull
Australopithecus anamensis (4.2 mya)- mix of human and ape like
features
Finding of several fossils of Australopithecus species between
3.75-1 mya
Australopithecus- final stage of bipedalism
Homo evolved from Autralopithecus around 2.5 mya
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Australopithecus Species I
Australopithecus afarensis (‘Southern Ape of Afar’)-Oldest- Hadar (Afar
region) of Ethiopia (E Africa) and Laetoli in northern Tanzania (S Africa)
Fossils dated between 3.75-3 mya (Potassium Argon)
Complete skeleton- female species- LUCY- Hadar- much smaller in size
than other fossils found
Bipedalism- footprints found at Laetoli- but lower limbs smaller than
upper- spent larger time on the trees though foraged for plant foods on the
ground
Brain size- 410 cc (Chimpanzee)
Other features-ape like face, forward thrusting jaws, and brow ridges,
narrower birth canal among females
Recent evidence-2009- Awash Valley (Ethiopia)-tool marks on animal
bones- may be the earliest tool user
Considered as ‘anatomic mosaic’ of apes and humans
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Australopithecus Species II
After 3 mya the Afarensis group split in two lines: Gracile
(towards homo) and Robust (towards modern apes)
Australopithecus Africanus (‘Southern Ape of Africa’)- fossils found
by Raymond Dart (1924)-South Africa- dated between 3-1 mya
A bipedal small and gracile creature
Brain Size-450 cc (like apes)- but strong neck muscles-delicate skull
and different brain structure- ‘Area 10’- Decision making, Advance
planning and initiative
Closer to humans than other Australopithecus species
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Australopithecus Species III
Australopithecus robustus (‘robust southern Ape’), also
Paranthropus (‘beside man’)- Fossils from E and S
Africa-lived between 2.5-1.5 mya
Strongly built-taller (avg 5.3 feet) and heavier (avg 50 kg)
Brain size- 500 cc-flatter skull
Large teeth-coarse and fibrous plant food, hard seeds
Considered as ancestral to modern Gorilla (skull
comparison)
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Australopithecus Species IV
Australopithecus Boisei (‘Boise Southern Ape’)- also
Zinzanthropus (‘East Africa Man’)- fossil findings by
Luis and Mary Leakey- Tanzania( S Africa) and Kenya (E
Africa) lived b/w 2.5-1 mya
Brain size- 550 cc- Large skull- flatter face, small canines
but number of pre-molars and molars
Bigger version of Africanus- Height (5.3-5.8 feet),
Weight (60-80 kg)
Clear evidence of Sexual Dimorphism
Crude stone tools found near the bones- possible tool
maker(?)- rejected
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Australopithecus Species V
Australopithecus garhi (‘garhi’- surprise in the local dialect)- fossils
found in Awash desert (1990)- Ethiopia (E. Africa)- lived around 2.5
mya
Neither in gracile or robust category
Brain Size (450-500cc)
Features like Chimpanzee-Long lower limbs like humans and upper
limbs like apes
Butchered animal bones near their fossils- efficient user of tools-
Meat eater
B. Fagan- High protein diet- increase in the brain size- changes in
hominid skull after 2.5 mya
Increasing use of stone tools- may have an impact on brain size- but A
garhi as direct ancestor of homo- not conclusively proven
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Australopithecus Species VI-
A. afarensis (brain size 410 cc)
A. africanus ( brain size 450 cc)
A. robustus (brain size 500 cc)
A. boisei (brain size 550 cc)
A. garhi (brain size 500 cc)
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Homo Species- I (Biological and Cultural
Evolution)
Evolution from Gracile forms of Australopithecus (either Africanus or
Garhi)
Homo- Perfect bipedalism, larger brain size, ability to acquire
language, an opposite thumb facilitating precision grip, small and
crowded teeth, their ability to manufacture (not simply use) stone tools
and better social interaction.
Classification: (Evolved b/w 2.5 mya-40,000 ya)
❖ Homo Habilis
❖ Homo Ergaster/Homo Erectus
❖ Homo heidelbergensis
❖ Homo Neanderthalensis (Neanderthals)
❖ Homo Sapiens
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Homo Species- II
Homo Habilis (‘Handy Man’)
Lived during 2.5-1.5 mya
Fossil Evidence- 1960- Found by Mary and Luis Leakey at Olduvai
Gorge (Tanzania-E. Africa)- also in S. Africa (Telanthropus) and
Southeast Asia (Meganthropus)
Similarities with Australopithecus-terrestrial bipedalism-expert tree
climbing (arboreal habitation)- Low body mass-similar tooth design-
sexual dimorphism –kept in different category than other homo
species
Differences- Cranial capacity (650 cc), brain structure and facial
features
Head higher and rounder, smaller jaw, less protruding face
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Homo Species- III
Ape like thumb (powerful gripping, manipulation of objects)-
manufacture of tools
Speech producing area (Broca’s area) - variety of sounds
Manufacture of tools-large number found in Olduvai Gorge
(Oldowan Culture)- dated 2 mya
Crude tools from pebbles- choppers, scrapers, burins and hammer
stones- to cut, scrape or dig
Tool marks on animal bones- meat as regular diet
But crude tools- not an expert hunter-hunting of small
animals-primarily a scavenger
Tools not standardised- absence of articulate speech
Assemblage of animal bones (Olduvai)-animal carcasses brought
from a distance and butchered here- evidence of social
organisation/cooperation
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Homo Species- IV
Co-existence of other homo species (5-6) alongside Habilis
before Pleistocene (1.64 mya)
But coexistence of habilis (latest fossil 1.44 mya from Koobi
fora in Kenya)) and Erectus- doubts on evolution of erectus
from habilis
Homo ergaster (‘Working Man’)- existed b/w 1.8-1.5 mya
Fossil evidence- complete skeleton of a boy from Nariokotom
in Lake Turkana in Kenya (‘Turkana Boy’)- 1984 by Richard
Leakey and others-dated 1.6 mya
Powerfully built, large face with low skull, Brain Size (800
cc)
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Homo Species- V
Larger legs and shorter arms (terrestrial living)- narrower hips
– could run faster over long distances- crucial for terrestrial
living- first modern hominin
Tools- Hand axe and cleavers- better than crude tools of
habilis
Use of natural fire- protection against cold, carnivores and for
cooking
Diminished sexual dimorphism (20%)
Narrower birth canal among females- early birth –close social
bonding
Direct link with erectus species
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Homo Species-VI
Homo Erectus (‘Upright Man’)
Flourished b/w 1.75-0.4 mya
Formation of mountain chains (Alps &Himalayas)- raising of land masses
New animal species-Horse, wild cattle, camels, Elephants
Erectus emerged in Africa- dispersed to Asia and Europe
Fossil Evidence:
❖ Africa- Eastern Turkana (1.75 mya)
❖ Asia-
▪ Trinil Beds on Solo river in Northeastern Indonesia (Pithecanthropus
erectus-upright ape man and Java Man)-0.7 mya
▪ Zhoukoudian Caves near Beijing (China)- Sinanthropus (‘Peking Man’)-
dated b/w 0.5-0.25 mya
❖ Europe- Spain, France, Germany, England and Hungary- dated b/w 1-0.4
mya
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Homo Species-VII
Radiation of erectus in different environmental conditions- tropical
savanna (East Africa) , forests (Indonesia), temperate climates
(North Africa and Europe) and extreme cold conditions (China and
northern Europe)- physical variations
Bigger Brain size (1000 cc)-Avg height (5-6 feet)- Avg weight (40-75
kg)
Other physical features- long and low skull with a bony bump behind,
a sloping forehead, thick brow ridges, big projecting jaws, smaller
teeth than habilis and strong neck muscles at the back of the neck (no
sagging of head while running)
Well developed Broca’s Area and more advanced vocal tract-
articulate speech
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Homo Species-VIII
Tools- Acheulian culture- large no of tools found in St Acheul
(Northern France)
Hand Axe (most prominent)- a multi purpose hunting and
meat processing tool- also flake tools and choppers
Standardised tools- articulate speech –transfer of tool
technology
Well developed speech- better cooperation in hunting big
animals (Horse, bison, rhinoceros, boars)- gathering, building
shelter
Use of Fire- protection against cold and carnivores- cooking
(broadening of diet)
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Homo Species-IX
Homo heidelbergensis (‘Heidelberg Man’)
Lived during 0.6-0.2 mya
Fossil findings- Africa (E.,N.,S.)- Europe (Germany, Spain, and England)
Largest findings- Mauer, Southeast of Heidelberg (Germany)
Debate- 1. Ancestors to Neanderthals and Modern Humans- 2. Ancestors to
Neanderthals only (an exclusive European species)
Earliest colonisers of Europe
Brain size (1250 cc), Avg Height (5-6 feet), Avg weight (50-70 kg)
Tool Kits- Hand Axe, Points and Flake tools (Core technology)- also
specialised tools(wooden spear)-hunting of carnivores, bison, deer,
rhinoceros, horse (animals of very cold climate)
Articulate speech- but not much evidence of social activities
Unused Hand Axe made of Pink Quartzite(Spain)-possible ritual usage
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Homo Species-X
Homo Neanderthalensis (Neanderthal Man)
Lived during 1,35000-30,000 ya
Fossil Findings- Europe and Eurasia
Major findings- Neander Valley (thal/tal) in Dusseldorf (Germany)
Also in France, Yugoslavia, Italy, Belgium, Britain, Spain, and
Czechoslovakia, in Russia as well as in South-West Asia, Africa and
Central Asia.
Classification- Archaic and Advanced Neanderthals
Classical Features- Large brain size (1500 cc)- large, thick and long
skull-Height 5.5 ft-Weight 70 kg- sloping forehead- brow ridges- distinct
cheek bones- flat or bulbous nose- only confined to Europe
Fossils at Israel (Qafzeh caves) and Iraq (Shanidar caves)- considerable
variation
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Homo Species-XI
Inhabited the earth in the last phase of the Ice Age- extremely cold climate-
reliance on meat
Tools- Mousterian Culture (Le Moustier Rock Shelter Southwest France)- an
improvement over Acheulian Culture
Use of variety of tools from flakes- an expert and opportunistic hunter
Killed large animals- bison, cave bear, horse, reindeer, wild cattle and woolly
mammoths
Also used snares and composite tools (birds and fish)
Made fire by igniting Iron pyrites
Shelters- caves, rock shelters, open encampments- survival in different climatic
conditions and exploitation of natural resources
Careful burial of the dead- Abstract thoughts like ‘Life after death’- grave goods
(stone tools and pillows, flowers, burnt pieces of meat)
Language and Speech- not much developed- Culture remained unchanged
(Fagan)
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Homo Species-XII
Extinction of Neanderthals-30,000 ya
Debate:
❖ Evidence from Western Europe-disappeared soon after emergence
of Homo Sapiens (wiped out by modern man)
❖ Evidence from W. Asia-cohabited with Homo Sapiens
(Neanderthals interbred with other contemporary HS species or
themselves evolved into HS)
❖ Consensus- Disappearance not sudden-contribution (gene transfer)
in the emergence of HS
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Homo Species-XIII
Homo Sapiens (Modern/Wise Man)
Emergence Debate (Paleoanthropologists)
1. Out of Africa/African Origin/Total Replacement Model- emerged first
and only in Africa few hundred thousand ya- travelled out of Africa
and colonised other regions- replaced all existing homo species without
genetic interchange
2. Multi Regional Evolution Model- Independent evolution of modern
humans in Africa, Asia and Europe from archaic HS- a generic homo
ancestors spread to different parts of the world (2-1 mya) - emerged as
HS due to mating and mutation- physical divergence (Africans, Asians
and Europeans) due to local environment
3. Assimilation /Intermediate Model- Accepts African origin but rejects
total replacement- genetic hybridisation, gene flow and regional pattern
of evolution- genetically African but show regional continuity
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Homo Species-XIV
Emergence Debate (Present Status)
Till recently-importance to Multi Regional Evolution model-Large fossil
findings of Archaic and Modern HS from W. Europe and Southwest Asia (two
points of origin)- Finding of archaic Neanderthals (Europe) and advanced
(Southwest Asia)
Recent research- DNA analysis-pattern of genetic variation among modern
humans
Study of Mitochondrial DNA (mt DNA)- (Rebecca Cann, Mark Stoneking and
Allan Wilson,1987)- passed from mother to daughter- 182 women (Africa,
Europe, Asia, Australia, and New Guinea)- small differences in DNA- One
single female ancestor (‘mt Eve’) or a small group of females from Africa
(2,00,000 ya)- migrated to other parts of the world with no intermixing or
interbreeding with the existing archaic HS
Y-chromosomal DNA analysis- F. Cruciani and others (2011)- passed on from
father to son- most common African male ancestor (‘Y-chromosomal Adam’)
living around 1,44,000 ya
Africans have diverse kind of mt DNA
Study of normal DNA-Primary split b/w Africans and non-Africans and later
b/w Eurasians and Southwest Asians
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Homo Species-XV
Modern Homo Sapiens
Emerged from archaic and advanced HS
Archaic-emerged 2,00,000 ya-fossil evidence-Omo valley in Ethiopia
(,1,95,000ya) and Broken Hill in Zambia (1,10,000 ya)
Advanced- emerged around 1,00,000 ya- Fossil evidence- Qafzeh cave in
Israel (92,000 ya)
Classification based on structure of the skull and not cultural differences
Earliest evidence of Modern HS- Cro-Magnon Rock Shelter (Southwest
France)- evolved around 40,000 ya- white ancestors of present-day
Europeans
Physical features- Smaller and taller head (1400 cc)- rounded
braincase-Avg height 5.6-5.7 feet- thinner bones-upright forehead-
straight face(not jutting forward)- slight brow ridges-smaller nose and
jaws-more crowded teeth- well developed chin
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Homo Species-XVI
Cultural Aspects
❖ Improvement over Neanderthals- variety of cultures
❖ Colonised all continents of the Old and the New World- adjusted in
varying climatic conditions
❖ Tools- versatile tools made from stone, bone, antler and wood-
New technique (Blade technology)
❖ Tool cultures-Perogordian/Chattelperonian, Aurignacian,
Gravettian, Solutrean and Magdalenian
❖ Developments described as- “Cultural Explosion” (Steven Mithen)-
increased economic specialisation, development of fully articulate
speech, restructuring of social relationships between social groups,
development of art
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Skull Comparison and Brain Size of Homo
Species
Homo Habilis Homo Erectus
(650cc) (1000cc)
Neanderthals (1500cc)
H. Sapiens
(1470cc)
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READINGS
Brian M Fagan (2010)- People of the Earth; An Introduction
to World Prehistory.
Grahame Clark(1977)- World Prehistory: In New Perspective
S J De Laet (ed)- History of Humanity Vol 1 (1994)- Chapter
by B Klima
David Lambert (1987)- Cambridge Guide to Prehistoric Man.
Richard Leakey (1994)- The Origin of Humankind
Robert J Wenke and Deborah I Olszewski (1985)- Patterns in
Prehistory
Rakesh Kumar (2018)- Ancient and Medieval World
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