1 Electric Current

The flow of electric charge is known as Electric Current. Electric current is carried by moving elec-
trons through a conductor. By convention, electric current flows in the opposite direction to the move-
ment of electrons.

2 Electric Circuit
An Electric Circuit is a continuous and closed path of electric current. An instrument called ammeter
measures electric current in a circuit. It is always connected in series in a circuit through which the
current is to be measured. Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of a typical electric circuit comprising
a cell, an electric bulb, an ammeter and a plug key. Note that the electric current flows in the circuit
from the positive terminal of the cell to the negative terminal of the cell through the bulb and ammeter.

Figure 1: A schematic diagram of an electric circuit comprising – cell, electric bulb, ammeter and plug
key

3 Expression of Electric Current

Electric current is denoted by the letter ‘I’. Electric current is expressed by the rate of flow of electric
charges. Rate of flow means the amount of charge flowing through a particular area in unit time.
If a net electric charge Q flows through a cross-section of a conductor in time t, then,
Q
I=
t
where I is electric current, Q is net charge, and t is time in seconds.

3.1 S.I. Unit of Electric Charge and Current

An electron possesses a negative charge of 1.6 × 10−19 C. The S.I. unit of electric charge is coulomb
(C). One coulomb is nearly equal to 6 × 1018 electrons. The S.I. unit of electric current is ampere (A).
Ampere is the flow of electric charge through a surface at the rate of one coulomb per second. This
means,
1C
1A=
1s

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3.2 Small Quantity of Electric Current
Small quantities of electric current are expressed in milliampere and microampere.

1 mA = 10−3 A and 1µA = 10−6 A

3.3 Ammeter
An ammeter is an apparatus used to measure electric current in a circuit.

4 Charge
Like mass, charge is a fundamental property of matter. There are two types of charge:

• Positive charge.

• Negative charge.

4.1 Positive and Negative Charge

The charge acquired by a glass rod when rubbed with silk is called a positive charge, and the charge
acquired by an ebonite rod when rubbed with wool is called a negative charge.

4.2 Properties of Electric Charge

• Unlike charges attract each other, and like charges repel each other.

• The force between two charges varies directly as the product of the charges and inversely as the
square of the distance (r) between them.
q1 q2
F ∝
r2

The S.I. unit of charge is coulomb (C).

1C=1A×1s

Thus, the quantity of charge that flows through a circuit when one ampere of current flows through it in
one second is known as a 1-coulomb charge.

5 Electric Potential and Potential Difference

5.1 Electric Potential
The amount of electric potential energy at a point is called electric potential.

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5.2 Potential Difference
The difference in the amount of electric potential energy between two points in an electric circuit is
called electric potential difference. Electric potential difference is known as voltage, which is equal
to the amount of work done to move the unit charge between two points against a static electric field.
Work done W
Voltage = or V =
Charge Q
where V is voltage, W is work done, and Q is charge.

5.3 S.I. Unit of Electric Potential Difference (Voltage)

The S.I. unit of electric potential difference is volt (V), named in honour of Italian Physicist Alessandro
Volta.
1J
1V= = 1 JC−1
1C

Figure 2: Symbols of some commonly used components in circuit diagrams

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5.4 Voltmeter
A voltmeter is an apparatus used to measure the potential difference or electric potential difference
between two points in an electric circuit.

5.5 Galvanometer
A galvanometer is a device used to detect current in an electric circuit.

6 Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law states that the potential difference between two points is directly proportional to the electric
current, at a constant temperature.
V ∝ I or V = IR
where R is the resistance, a constant for the given conductor at a given temperature.

6.1 Resistance
Resistance is the property of a conductor that resists the flow of electric current through it. The S.I. unit
of resistance is ohm (Ω).
1V
1Ω =
1A
From Ohm’s Law, it is evident that electric current through a resistor is inversely proportional to resis-
tance, meaning electric current will decrease with an increase in resistance and vice versa. The graph
of V (potential difference) versus I (electric current) is always a straight line.

7 Resistance
Resistance is a property of a conductor that resists the flow of electric current through it. A component
that is used to resist the flow of electric current in a circuit is called a resistor. In practical applications,
resistors are used to increase or decrease the electric current.

7.1 Variable Resistance

The component of an electric circuit that is used to regulate the current, without changing the voltage
from the source, is called variable resistance.

7.2 Rheostat
A rheostat is a device used in a circuit to provide variable resistance.

7.3 Cause of Resistance in a Conductor

The flow of electrons in a conductor is electric current. The positive particles of the conductor create
hindrance to the flow of electrons because of the attraction between them. This hindrance is the cause
of resistance in the flow of electricity.

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7.4 Factors on Which Resistance of a Conductor Depends
Resistance in a conductor depends on the nature, length, and area of the cross-section of the conductor.

• Nature of Material: Some materials create the least hindrance and are called good conductors.
Silver is the best conductor of electricity. Some materials create more hindrance to the flow of
electric current, known as bad conductors or insulators. Hard plastic is one of the best insulators
of electricity.

• Length of Conductor: Resistance (R) is directly proportional to the length of the conductor.
This means resistance increases with the increase in the length of the conductor. This is why long
electric wires create more resistance to the electric current.

R∝l (i)

• Area of Cross Section: Resistance R is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section (A) of
the conductor. This means R will decrease with an increase in the area of the conductor and vice
versa.
1
R∝ (ii)
A
From equations (i) and (ii),
l l
R∝ or R = ρ
A A
where ρ (rho) is the proportionality constant, called the electrical resistivity of the material of
the conductor.

• The S.I. Unit of Resistivity: Since the S.I. unit of R is Ω, the S.I. unit of area is m2 , and the S.I.
unit of length is m. Hence, the unit of resistivity ρ is:

Ω × m2 /m = Ωm

7.5 Resistivity
Resistivity is defined as the resistance offered by a cube of a material of side 1m when current flows
perpendicular to its opposite faces. It’s S.I. unit is ohm-meter (Ωm).
RA
ρ=
l
Resistivity is also known as specific resistance. Resistivity depends on the nature of the material of
the conductor. Materials with resistivity in the range of 10−8 Ωm to 10−6 Ωm are considered as good
conductors. Materials with resistivity in the range of 1012 Ωm to 1017 Ωm are considered as insulators.

Combination of Resistors
There are two methods of joining resistors together:

• Series combination

• Parallel combination

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1. Resistors in Series
When resistors are joined from end to end, they are said to be connected in series. In this case, the total
resistance of the system is equal to the sum of the resistances of all the resistors in the system.

Figure 3: Resistors in series

Let three resistors R1 , R2 , and R3 be connected in series. Let the potential difference across points
A and B be V , and the potential differences across R1 , R2 , and R3 be V1 , V2 , and V3 respectively. The
current flowing through the combination is I.
We know that:
V = V1 + V2 + V3 (i)
According to Ohm’s Law:
V1 = IR1 , V2 = IR2 , V3 = IR3 (ii)
Let the total resistance be Rs . Then:
V = IRs (iii)
From equations (i), (ii), and (iii), we get:

IRs = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
Thus, when resistors are connected in series, the current flowing through each resistor is the same and
is equal to the total current.

2. Resistors in Parallel
When resistors are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the total resistance of the system is equal to
the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.

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 Figure 4: Resistors in parallel

Let three resistors R1 , R2 , and R3 be connected in parallel. Let the potential difference across points
A and B be V , and the total current flowing between points A and B be I. The currents flowing through
resistors R1 , R2 , and R3 are I1 , I2 , and I3 respectively.
We know that:
I = I1 + I2 + I3 (i)
Since the potential difference across R1 , R2 , and R3 is the same and equal to V , according to Ohm’s
Law:
V V V
I1 = , I2 = , I3 = (ii)
R1 R2 R3
Substituting these into equation (i), we get:
V V V
I= + +
R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
= + +
Rp R1 R2 R3
Thus, in a parallel combination, the potential difference across each resistor is the same, and the total
current is the sum of the currents through the individual resistors.

Heating Effect of Electric Current

When electric current is supplied to a purely resistive conductor, the energy of electric current is dissi-
pated entirely in the form of heat, and as a result, the resistor gets heated. The heating of the resistor
because of dissipation of electrical energy is commonly known as the Heating Effect of Electric Current.
Some examples are as follows:

• When electric energy is supplied to an electric bulb, the filament gets heated, because of which it
gives light.

• The heating of the electric bulb happens because of the heating effect of electric current.

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Cause of Heating Effect of Electric Current
Electric current generates heat to overcome the resistance offered by the conductor through which it
passes. The higher the resistance, the more heat the electric current will generate. Thus, the generation
of heat by electric current while passing through a conductor is an inevitable consequence. This heating
effect is used in many appliances, such as:
• Electric iron,
• Electric heater,
• Electric geyser, etc.

Joule’s Law of Heating

Let an electric current I flow through a resistor having resistance R, and let the potential difference
across the resistor be V . Suppose charge Q flows through the circuit for time t. The work done in
moving charge Q across potential difference V is given by:
W =V ×Q
Since charge Q flows through the circuit for time t, the power input P to the circuit is given by:
W V ×Q
P = = (i)
t t
Q
We know that electric current I = t
. Substituting Q = I × t into equation (i), we get:
P =V ×I (ii)
Thus, power P is the product of voltage and current. For a steady current I, the heat produced H in
time t is:
H = V × I × t (iii)
According to Ohm’s law, V = I × R. Substituting this into equation (iii), we get:
H = I × R × I × t = I 2 Rt (iv)
This expression is known as Joule’s Law of Heating. It states that the heat produced in a resistor is
directly proportional to the square of the current, the resistance, and the time the current flows through
the resistor.

Applications
Electric Bulb
In an electric bulb, the filament gives light because of the heating effect of electric current. The filament
is typically made of tungsten, which has a melting point of 3380◦ C.

Electric Iron
The heating element of an electric iron is made of alloys with high melting points. Electric heaters and
geysers work on the same mechanism.

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Electric Fuse
Electric fuses protect appliances from high voltage. The fuse wire, made from metals or metal alloys
such as aluminum, copper, iron, or lead, melts when excessive current flows, protecting the appliance.
For example, if an electric heater consumes 1000 W at 220 V, the current in the circuit is:
P 1000 W
I= = = 4.5 A
V 220 V
Thus, a fuse rated at 5 A should be used to protect the heater.

Electric Power
The SI unit of electric power is the watt (W).

1W = 1V × 1A = 1V × 1A

For larger power consumption, we use kilowatts (kW), where 1 kW = 1000 W. The unit of electric
energy consumption is kilowatt-hour (kWh), defined as:

1 kWh = 1000 W × 1 hour = 1000 W × 3600 s

Thus, 1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J.

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Question 1
A current of 10 A flows through a conductor for two minutes.

(i) Calculate the amount of charge passed through any area of cross-section of the conductor.

(ii) If the charge of an electron is 1.6 × 10−19 C, calculate the total number of electrons flowing.

Answer:

(i) Given:
I = 10 A, t = 2 min = 2 × 60 s = 120 s
The amount of charge Q passed through any area of cross-section is given by:
Q
I= or Q=I ×t
t
Q = (10 × 120) A · s = 1200 C

(ii) Since Q = n × e, where n is the total number of electrons and e is the charge on one electron:

1200 = n × 1.6 × 10−19

1200
n= = 7.5 × 1021
1.6 × 10−19

Question 2
Define electric current.
Answer: Electric current is the amount of charge flowing through a particular area in unit time.

Question 3
Define one ampere.
Answer: One ampere is constituted by the flow of one coulomb of charge per second.
1 A = 1 C · s−1

Question 4
Name a device that you can use to maintain a potential difference between the ends of a conductor.
Explain the process by which this device does so.
Answer: A cell or a battery can be used to maintain a potential difference between the ends of a
conductor. The chemical reaction within a cell generates the potential difference across the terminals
of the cell, even when no current is drawn from it. When connected to a conductor, it produces electric
current and maintains the potential difference across the ends of the conductor.

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Question 5
A student plots V-I graphs for three samples of nichrome wire with resistances R1 , R2 , and R3 . Choose
the correct statement regarding the graph.

(a) R1 = R2 = R3

(b) R1 > R2 > R3

(c) R3 > R2 > R1

(d) R2 > R1 > R3

Answer: (d): The inverse of the slope of the I-V graph gives the resistance of the material. Since the
slope of R3 is highest, R2 > R1 > R3 .

Question 6
State Ohm’s law.
Answer: Ohm’s law states that the potential difference V , across the ends of a given metallic wire in
an electric circuit, is directly proportional to the current I flowing through it, provided its temperature
remains constant. Mathematically,
V ∝ I or V = IR
where R is the resistance of the conductor.

Question 8
Study the V-I graph for a resistor and prepare a table showing the values of I (in amperes) corresponding
to four different values of V (in volts). Find the current for V = 10 volts. (Board Term I, 2016)

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Answer: The values of current and voltage can be tabulated as follows:
Current, I (A) Voltage, V (V)
0 0
1 2
2 4
3 6
4 8
The current for V = 10 volts is 5 A.
At any point on the graph, resistance is the ratio of values of V and I. Since the given graph is a straight
line (ohmic conductor), the slope of the graph will also give the resistance of the resistor:
10V
R= = 2Ω
5A
Alternatively,

(8 − 2)V 6V
R= = = 2Ω
(4 − 1)A 3A
Question 13.
Assertion (A): The metals and alloys are good conductors of electricity.
Reason (R): Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin and it is not a good conductor of electricity.

(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of the assertion (A).
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of the assertion (A).
(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.
(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.
Answer:
(c): Metals and alloys are good conductors of electricity. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin which are
metals and thus is a good conductor of electricity.
Question 14.
A cylindrical conductor of length ‘l’ and uniform area of cross-section ‘A’ has resistance ‘R’. The area
of cross-section of another conductor of the same material and the same resistance but of length ‘2l’ is

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 A
(a) 2
3A
(b) 2

(c) 2A

(d) 3A

Answer:
(c): The resistance of a conductor of length l, and area of cross-section A is
ρl
R=
A
where ρ is the resistivity of the material.
Now for the conductor of length 2l, area of cross-section A′ and resistivity ρ:
ρ2l
R′ =
A′
But given, R = R′ , so
ρl ρ2l
= ′ ⇒ A′ = 2A
A A
Question 15.
Assertion (A): Alloys are commonly used in electrical heating devices like electric iron and heater.
Reason (R): Resistivity of an alloy is generally higher than that of its constituent metals but alloys have
lower melting points than their constituent metals.

(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of the assertion (A).

(b) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the correct explanation of the assertion (A).

(c) (A) is true, but (R) is false.

(d) (A) is false, but (R) is true.

Answer:
(a) Question 16.
How is the resistivity of alloys compared with those of pure metals from which they may have been
formed? (Board Term I, 2017)
Answer: The resistivity of an alloy is generally higher than that of its constituent metals.

Question 17.
(i) List three factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends.
(ii) Write the SI unit of resistivity. (Board Term I, 2015)
Answer:
(i) Resistance of a conductor depends upon the following factors:
(1) Length of the conductor: Greater the length (l) of the conductor, more will be the resistance (R).
R∝l
(2) Area of cross-section of the conductor: Greater the cross-sectional area of the conductor, less will
be the resistance. R ∝ A1
(3) Nature of conductor.

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(ii) SI unit of resistivity is Ω m.

Question 18.
Calculate the resistance of a metal wire of length 2 m and area of cross-section 1.55 × 10−6 m², if the
resistivity of the metal is 2.8 × 10−8 Ω m. (Board Term I, 2013)
Answer:
For the given metal wire,
Length, l = 2 m, Area of cross-section, A = 1.55 × 10−6 m2 ,
Resistivity of the metal, ρ = 2.8 × 10−8 Ω m.
Since, resistance R = ρl A
,

(2.8 × 10−8 × 2)
R= Ω = 0.036 Ω.
1.55 × 10−6

Question 19.
(a) List the factors on which the resistance of a conductor in the shape of a wire depends.
(b) Why are metals good conductors of electricity whereas glass is a bad conductor of electricity? Give
reason.
(c) Why are alloys commonly used in electrical heating devices? Give reason. (2018)
Answer:
(a) Refer to Question 17 (i).
(b) Metals have very low resistivity, hence they are good conductors of electricity. Glass has very high
resistivity, so it is a bad conductor.
(c) Alloys are commonly used in electrical heating devices because:
(i) Alloys have higher resistivity than metals.
(ii) Alloys do not oxidize or burn readily.

Question 20.
Calculate the resistivity of the material of a wire of length 1 m, radius 0.01 cm, and resistance 20 ohms.
(Board Term I, 2017)
Answer:
Given, length of wire l = 1 m, radius r = 0.01 cm = 1 × 10−4 m, resistance R = 20 Ω.
We know,
ρl
R= ,
A
2
where A = πr is the area of cross-section.
Substituting the values,
ρ×1
20 = ,
3.14 × (1 × 10−4 )2
ρ = 6.28 × 10−7 Ω m.

Question 21.
A copper wire has a diameter of 0.5 mm and resistivity of 1.6 × 10−8 Ω m. Calculate the length of this
wire to make its resistance 100 Ω. How much does the resistance change if the diameter is doubled
without changing its length? (Board Term I, 2015)
Answer:

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Given, resistivity of copper ρ = 1.6 × 10−8 Ω m, diameter of wire d = 0.5 mm, and resistance R =
100 Ω.
Radius of wire r = d2 = 2.5 × 10−4 m.
Area of cross-section of wire, A = πr2 = 1.9625 × 10−7 m2 .
We know,
ρl
R= ,
A
Substituting the values,
1.6 × 10−8 × l
100 = ,
1.9 × 10−7
l = 1200 m.
If the diameter is doubled, area A′ becomes 4A. Therefore, the new resistance R′ will be
R 100
R′ = = = 25 Ω.
4 4

Question 22.
The resistance of a wire of 0.01 cm radius is 10 Ω. If the resistivity of the material of the wire is
50 × 10−8 ohm meter, find the length of the wire. (Board Term I, 2014)
Answer:
Given: r = 0.01 cm = 10−4 m, ρ = 50 × 10−8 Ω m, and R = 10 Ω.
Using the formula R = ρl
A
, we get the length of the wire as:
RA R×ρ
l= =
ρ πr2
Substituting the values:
10 × 50 × 10−8
l= = 0.628 m = 62.8 cm.
3.14 × (10−4 )2
Question 23.
A wire has a resistance of 16 Ω. It is melted and drawn into a wire of half its original length. Calculate
the resistance of the new wire. What is the percentage change in its resistance? (Board Term I, 2013)
Answer:
When the wire is melted, its volume remains the same, so:
V′ =V or A′ l′ = Al.
Given that l′ = 2l , we have A′ = 2A.
ρl
The resistance of the original wire is R = A
= 16 Ω.
The resistance of the new wire is:
ρ 2l


′ρl′ 1 ρl
R = ′ = = .
A 2A 4A
Thus,
R 16
R′ = = = 4 Ω.
4 4
The percentage change in resistance is:
R − R′
   
16 − 4
Percentage change = × 100 = × 100 = 75%.
R 16

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 Question 24.
If the radius of a current-carrying conductor is halved, how does the current through it change? (Board
Term I, 2014)
Answer:
If the radius of the conductor is halved, the area of cross-section is reduced to 14 of its original value.
Since R ∝ A1 , the resistance will become four times its previous value.
From Ohm’s law, V = IR. For a constant voltage, I ∝ R1 , so the current will reduce to 14 of its previous
value.
Question 25.
Define the resistance of a conductor. State the factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends.
Name the device which is often used to change the resistance without changing the voltage source in
an electric circuit. Calculate the resistance of a 50 cm length of wire with a cross-sectional area of 0.01
square mm and a resistivity of 5 × 10−8 Ω m. (Board Term I, 2014)
Answer:
Resistance is the property of a conductor to resist the flow of electric charges through it.
Factors affecting the resistance of a conductor: Refer to the answer of Question 17(i).
A rheostat is the device often used to change the resistance without changing the voltage source in an
electric circuit.
Given: Length of the wire l = 50 cm = 50 × 10−2 m, cross-sectional area A = 0.01 mm2 = 0.01 ×
10−6 m2 , and resistivity ρ = 5 × 10−8 Ω m.
Using the formula for resistance R = ρl A
:

5 × 10−8 × 50 × 10−2
R= = 2.5 Ω.
0.01 × 10−6
Question 26.
If a person has five resistors each of value 1/5 Ω, what is the maximum resistance he can obtain by
connecting them?
(a) 1 Ω
(b) 5 Ω
(c) 10 Ω
(d) 25 Ω (2020)
Answer:
The maximum resistance can be obtained by connecting the resistors in series.
The total resistance in series is:

Rs = 1/5 + 1/5 + 1/5 + 1/5 + 1/5 = 1 Ω.

Therefore, the maximum resistance is 1 Ω.

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