CHAPTER THREE

PUMP PERFORMANCE

Chapter 3 – Pump Performance

1
 PUMP PERFORMANCE

3.1 Head

The pressure at any point in a liquid can be thought of as being

caused by a vertical column of the liquid which, due to its weight, exerts a
pressure equal to the pressure at the point in question. The height of this
column is called the static head and is expressed in terms of feet of liquid.

The static head corresponding to any specific pressure depends

upon the weight of the liquid according to the following formula.

Pressure in psi × 2.31

Head in Feet =
Specific Gravity

A Centrifugal pump imparts velocity to a liquid. This velocity energy

is then transformed largely into pressure energy as the liquid leaves the
pump. Therefore, the head developed is approximately equal to the
velocity energy at the periphery of the impeller. This relationship is
expressed by the following well-known formula:

v2
H=
2g

Where,
H = Total head developed in feet.
v = Velocity at periphery of impeller in feet per sec.
g = 32.2 Feet/Sec2

We can predict the approximate head of any centrifugal pump by

calculating the peripheral velocity of the impeller and substituting into the
above formula. A handy formula for peripheral velocity is:

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 RPM × D
v=
229
Where,
D = Impeller diameter in inches
V = Velocity in ft./sec

The above demonstrates why we must always think in terms of feet

of liquid rather than pressure when working with centrifugal pumps. A
given pump with a given impeller diameter and speed will raise a liquid to
a certain height regardless of the weight of the liquid, as shown in
Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 – Identical Pumps Handling Liquids of Different Specific

Gravities.

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 All of the forms of energy involved in a liquid flow system can be
expressed in terms of feet of liquid. The total of these various heads
determines the total system head or the work which a pump must perform
in the system. The various forms of head are defined as follows.

Suction Lift: Suction lift exists when the source of supply is below the
center line of the pump. Thus the STATIC SUCTION LIFT is the vertical
distance in feet from the centerline of the pump to the free level of the
liquid to be pumped.

Figure 3.2a – Suction Lift "Showing Static Heads in a Pumping System

Where the Pump is Located above the Suction Tank"

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 Suction Head: Suction head exists when the source of supply is above
the centerline of the pump. Thus the STATIC SUCTION HEAD is the
vertical distance in feet from the centerline of the pump to the free level
of the liquid to be pumped.

Figure 3.2b – Suction Head "Showing Static Heads in a Pumping System

Where the Pump is Located below the Suction Tank"

Static Discharge Head: Is the vertical distance in feet between the

pump centerline and the point of free discharge or the surface of the liquid
in the discharge tank.

Total Static Head: Is the vertical distance in feet between the free level
of the source of supply and the point of free discharge or the free surface
of the discharge liquid.

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 Friction Head (hf): Is the head required to overcome the resistance to
flow in the pipe and fittings. It is dependent upon the size, condition and
type of pipe, number and type of pipe fittings, flow rate, and nature of the
liquid.

Velocity Head (hv): Is the energy of a liquid as a result of its motion at

some velocity V. It is the equivalent head in feet through which the water
would have to fall to acquire the same velocity, or in other words, the
head necessary to accelerate the water. Velocity head can be calculated
from the following formula:

V2
hv =
2g

Where,
g = 32.2 ft/sec.2
V = liquid velocity in feet per second

The velocity head is usually insignificant and can be ignored in most

high head systems. However, it can be a large factor and must be
considered in low head systems.

Pressure Head: Must be considered when a pumping system either

begins or terminates in a tank which is under some pressure other than
atmospheric. The pressure in such a tank must first be converted to feet
of liquid. A vacuum in the suction tank or a positive pressure in the
discharge tank must be added to the system head, whereas a positive
pressure in the suction tank or vacuum in the discharge tank would be
subtracted. The following is a handy formula for converting inches of
mercury vacuum into feet of liquid.

Vacuum, in of Hg x 1.13
Vacuum, feet of liquid =
Sp. Gr.

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 The above forms of head, namely static, friction, velocity, and
pressure, are combined to make up the total system head at any
particular flow rate. Following are definitions of these combined or
"Dynamic" head terms as they apply to the pump.

Total Dynamic Suction Lift (Ls): Is the static suction lift minus the
velocity head at the pump suction flange plus the total friction head in the
suction line. The total dynamic suction lift, as determined on pump test, is
the reading of a gauge on the suction flange, converted to feet of liquid
and corrected to the pump centerline*, minus the velocity head at the
point of gauge attachment.

Total Dynamic Suction Head (hs): Is the static suction head plus the
velocity head at the pump suction flange minus the total friction head in
the suction line. The total dynamic suction head, as determined on pump
test, is the reading of the gauge on the suction flange, converted to feet
of liquid and corrected to the pump centerline*, plus the velocity head at
the point of gauge attachment.

Total Dynamic Discharge Head (hd): Is the static discharge head plus
the velocity head at the pump discharge flange plus the total friction head
in the discharge line. The total dynamic discharge head, as determined on
pump test, is the reading of a gauge at the discharge flange, converted to
feet of liquid and corrected to the pump centerline*, plus the velocity head
at the point of gauge attachment.

Total Head (H) or Total Dynamic Head (TDH): Is the total dynamic
discharge head minus the total dynamic suction head or
TDH = hd + Ls (with a suction lift)
TDH = hd - hs (with a suction head)

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 3.2 Capacity

Capacity (Q) is normally expressed in gallons per minute (gpm).

Since liquids are essentially incompressible, there is a direct relationship
between the capacity in a pipe and the velocity of flow. This relationship is
as follows:
Q
Q = 449 (A) × V or V=
449 (A)

Where,
A = area of pipe or conduit in square feet.
V = velocity of flow in feet per second.
Q = Capacity in gallons per minute

NOTE: On vertical pumps the correction should be made to the eye of the
suction or lowest impeller.

3.3 Power and Efficiency

The work performed by a pump is a function of the total head and

the weight of the liquid pumped in a given time period. The pump capacity
in gpm and the liquid specific gravity are normally used in the formulas
rather than the actual weight of the liquid pumped.

Pump input or brake horsepower (bhp) is the actual horsepower

delivered to the pump shaft. Pump output or hydraulic horsepower (whp)
is the liquid horsepower delivered by the pump. These two terms are
defined by the following formulas.
Q × TDH × Sp. Gr.
whp =
3960
Q × TDH × Sp. Gr.
bhb =
3960 × Pump Efficiency

Where,
Q = Capacity in gallons per minute
TDH = Total differential head in feat

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 The constant 3960 is obtained by dividing the number or foot
pounds for one horsepower (33,000) by the weight of one gallon of water
(8.33 pounds.)

The brake horsepower or input to a pump is greater than the

hydraulic horsepower or output due to the mechanical and hydraulic
losses incurred in the pump. Therefore the pump efficiency is the ratio of
these two values.
whp Q × TDH× Sp. Gr.
Pump Efficiency = =
bhb 3960 × bhb

3.4 Specific Speed and Pump Type

Specific speed (Ns) is a non-dimensional design index used to

classify pump impellers as to their type and proportions. It is defined as
the speed in revolutions per minute at which a geometrically similar
impeller would operate if it were of such a size as to deliver one gallon per
minute against one foot head.

The understanding of this definition is of design engineering

significance only, however, and specific speed should be thought of only
as an index used to predict certain pump characteristics. The following
formula is used to determine specific speed:

N Q
Ns =
H3 / 4
Where,
N = Pump speed in RPM
Q = Capacity in gpm at the best efficiency point
H = Total head in feet per stage at the best efficiency point

The specific speed determines the general shape or class of the

impeller as depicted in Figure 3.3. As the specific speed increases, the

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 ratio of the impeller outlet diameter, D2, to the inlet or eye diameter, D1,
decreases. This ratio becomes 1.0 for a true axial flow impeller.

Radial flow impellers develop head principally through centrifugal

force. Pumps of higher specific speeds develop head partly by centrifugal
force and partly by axial force. A higher specific speed indicates a pump
design with head generation more by axial forces and less by centrifugal
forces. An axial flow or propeller pump with a specific speed of 10,000 or
greater generates it's head exclusively through axial forces.

Radial impellers are generally low flow high head designs whereas
axial flow impellers are high flow low head designs.

Figure 3.3 – Impeller Design vs Specific Speed

3.5 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) and Cavitation

The Hydraulic Institute defines NPSH as the total suction head in

feet absolute, determined at the suction nozzle and corrected to datum,
less the vapor pressure of the liquid in feet absolute. Simply stated, it is
an analysis of energy conditions on the suction side of a pump to

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 determine if the liquid will vaporize at the lowest pressure point in the
pump.

The pressure which a liquid exerts on its surroundings is dependent

upon its temperature. This pressure, called vapor pressure, is a unique
characteristic of every fluid and increased with increasing temperature.
When the vapor pressure within the fluid reaches the pressure of the
surrounding medium, the fluid begins to vaporize or boil. The temperature
at which this vaporization occurs will decrease as the pressure of the
surrounding medium decreases.

A liquid increases greatly in volume when it vaporizes. One cubic

foot of water at room temperature becomes 1700 cu. ft. of vapor at the
same temperature.

It is obvious from the above that if we need to pump a fluid

effectively, we must keep it in liquid form. NPSH is simply a measure of
the amount of suction head present to prevent this vaporization at the
lowest pressure point in the pump.

NPSH Required is a function of the pump design. As the liquid

passes from the pump suction to the eye of the impeller, the velocity
increases and the pressure decreases. There are also pressure losses due
to shock and turbulence as the liquid strikes the impeller. The centrifugal
force of the impeller vanes further increases the velocity and decreases
the pressure of the liquid. The NPSH Required is the positive head in feet
absolute required at the pump suction to overcome these pressure drops
in the pump and maintain the majority of the liquid above its vapor
pressure. The NPSH Required varies with speed and capacity within any
particular pump. Pump manufacturer's curves normally provide this
information.

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 NPSH Available is a function of the system in which the pump
operates. It is the excess pressure of the liquid in feet absolute over its
vapor pressure as it arrives at the pump suction. Figure 3.4 shows four
typical suction systems with the NPSH available formulas applicable to
each. It is important to correct for the specific gravity of the liquid and to
convert all terms to units of "feet absolute" in using the formulas.

Where,
PB = Barometric pressure in feet absolute.
VP = Vapor pressure of the liquid at maximum pumping temperature, in feet absolute.
P = Pressure on surface of liquid in closed suction tank, in feet absolute.
Ls = Maximum static suction lift in feet.
LH = Minimum static suction head in feet.
hf = Friction loss in feet in suction pipe at required capacity

Figure 3.4 – Calculation of system Net Positive Suction Head Available for
typical suction conditions

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 In an existing system, the NPSH Available can be determined by a
gauge on the pump suction. The following formula applies:

NPSH A = PB - Vp ± Gr + hv

Where,
Gr = Gauge reading at the pump suction expressed in feet (plus if
above atmospheric, minus if below atmospheric) corrected to
the pump centerline.
hv = Velocity head in the suction pipe at the gauge connection,
expressed in feet.

3.5.1 Cavitation

Is a term used to describe the phenomenon, which occurs in a

pump when there is insufficient NPSH Available. When the pressure of the
liquid is reduced to a value equal to or below its vapor pressure the liquid
begins to boil and small vapor bubbles or pockets begin to form. As these
vapor bubbles move along the impeller vanes to a higher pressure area
above the vapor pressure, they rapidly collapse.

The collapse or "implosion" is so rapid that it may be heard as a

rumbling noise, as if you were pumping gravel. In high suction energy
pumps, the collapses are generally high enough to cause minute pockets
of fatigue failure on the impeller vane surfaces. This action may be
progressive, and under severe (very high suction energy) conditions can
cause serious pitting damage to the impeller.

The accompanying noise is the easiest way to recognize cavitation.

Besides possible impeller damage, excessive cavitation results in reduced
capacity due to the vapor present in the pump. Also, the head may be
reduced and/or be unstable and the power consumption may be erratic.
Vibration and mechanical damage such as bearing failure can also occur

Chapter 3 – Pump Performance

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 as a result of operating in excessive cavitation, with high and very high
suction energy pumps.

The way to prevent the undesirable effects of cavitation in standard

low suction energy pumps is to insure that the NPSH Available in the
system is greater than the NPSH Required by the pump. High suction
energy pumps require an additional NPSH margin, above the NPSH
Required. Hydraulic Institute Standard (ANSI/HI 9.6.1) suggests NPSH
margin ratios of from 1.2 to 2.5 times the NPSH Required, for high and
very high suction energy pumps, when operating in the allowable
operating range.

3.5.2 NPSH and Pump Suction Specific Speed

In designing a pumping system, it is essential to provide adequate

NPSH available for proper pump operation. Insufficient NPSH available
may seriously restrict pump selection, or even force an expensive system
redesign. On the other hand, providing excessive NPSH available may
needlessly increase system cost. Suction specific speed may provide help
in this situation.

Suction specific speed (Nss) is defined as:

N (GPM)1 / 2
Ns s 
(NPSH R )3 / 4
Where,
N = Pump speed RPM
GPM = Pump flow at best efficiency point at impeller inlet (for
double suction impellers divide total pump flow by two).
NPSHR = Pump NPSH required at best efficiency point (in feet).

For a given pump, the suction specific speed is generally a

constant; it does not change when the pump speed is changed.
Experience has shown that 9000 is a reasonable value of suction specific

Chapter 3 – Pump Performance

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 speed. Pumps with a minimum suction specific speed of 9000 are readily
available, and are not normally subject to severe operating restrictions,
unless the pump speed pushes the pump into high or very high suction
energy.

An example:
Flow 2,000 GPM; head 600 ft. What NPSHA will be required?
Assume: at 600 ft., 3500 RPM operation will be required.

N (GPM)1 / 2
S=
(NSPH R )3 / 4
3550(2000)1 / 2
9000 =
(NPSH R )3 / 4
NPSH R 3 / 4 = 17.7
NPSH R = 46 Ft. (Pump)
NPSH A = (NPSH R )(NPSH M argin Ratio )
NPSH A = 46 × 1.5 = 69 ft.

A related problem is in selecting a new pump, especially at higher

flow, for an existing system. Suction specific speed will highlight
applications where NPSHA may restrict pump selection.

An example:
Existing system: Flow 2000 GPM; head 600 ft.; NPSHA 30 ft.; Specific
Gravity 1.0; Suction Nozzle 6 in. - What is the maximum speed at which a
pump can be run without exceeding NPSH available? (NPSHMargin Ratio = 1.5
from above @ S.E. = 173 x 106)

N (GPM)1 / 2
S=
(NSPH R )3 / 4
NPSH R = NPSH A / 1.5
N (2000)1 / 2
9000 = NPSH R = 30 / 1.5
(20)3 / 4
NPSH R = 20
N = 1903 RPM

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 Running a pump at this speed would require a gear and at this
speed, the pump might not develop the required head. At a mini-mum,
existing NPSH A is constraining pump selection.

Same system as 1. Is a double suction pump practical?

For a double suction pump De = .75 x 6" = 4.5

S.E. = 4.5 x 3550 x 9000 x 1.0
S.E. = 136 x 106 (High S.E.)
For a double suction pump, flow is divided by two.

N (GPM)1 / 2
S=
(NSPHR )3 / 4
N (1000)1 / 2
9000 =
(20)3 / 4
N = 2692 RPM

Using a double suction pump is one way of meeting system NPSH

and obtaining a higher head.

The amount of energy in a pumped fluid, that flashes into vapor

and then collapses back to a liquid in the higher pressure area of the
impeller inlet, determines the extent of the noise and/or damage from
cavitation. Suction Energy is defined as:

Suction Energy = De x N x S x Sg

Where,
De = Impeller eye diameter (inches)
Sg = Specific gravity of liquid (Sg - 1.0 for cold water)

High Suction Energy starts at 160 x 106 for end suction pumps and
120 x 106 for horizontal split case pumps. Very high suction energy starts
at 1.5 times the High Suction Energy values. For estimating purposes you

Chapter 3 – Pump Performance

16
 can normally assume that the impeller eye diameter is approximately 90%
of the suction nozzle size, for an end suction pump, and 75% of the
suction size for a double suction split case pump.

According to the Hydraulic Institute, an NPSH margin is required

above the NPSHR of the pump to suppress incipient cavitation. The
amount of margin is a function of Suction Energy and the critical nature of
the application as follows:

Suction Energy NPSHMargin Ratio (NPSHA/NPSHR)

Low 1.1 - 1.3
High 1.2 - 1.7
Very High 1.7 - 2.5

Suction specific speed 9,000, pump speed 3550 RPM, suction nozzle
size 6 inch, specific gravity 1.0, and the pump type is end suction.

De ~ .9 x 6" = 5.4"
Suction Energy = De x N x S x Sg
= 5.4 x 3550 x 9,000 x 1.0
= 173 x 106

Since 173 x 106 > 160 x 106, this is a High Suction Energy pump.

3.6 Pump Characteristic Curves

The performance of a centrifugal pump can be shown graphically on

a characteristic curve. A typical characteristic curve shows the total
dynamic head, brake horsepower, efficiency, and net positive Suction
head all plotted over the capacity range of the pump.

Figures 3.5, 3.6, & 3.7 are non-dimensional curves which indicate
the general shape of the characteristic curves for the various types of

Chapter 3 – Pump Performance

17
 pumps. They show the head, brake horsepower, and efficiency plotted as
a percent of their values at the design or best efficiency point of the
pump.

Figure 3.5 below shows that the head curve for a radial flow pump
is relatively flat and that the head decreases gradually as the flow
increases. Note that the brake horsepower increases gradually over the
flow range with the maximum normally at the point of maximum flow.

Figure 3.5 – Radial Flow Pump

Mixed flow centrifugal pumps and axial flow or propeller pumps

have considerably different characteristics as shown in Figures 3.6 and 3.7
below. The head curve for a mixed flow pump is steeper than for a radial
flow pump. The shut-off head is usually 150% to 200% of the design
head; The brake horsepower remains fairly constant over the flow range.
For a typical axial flow pump, the head and brake horsepower both
increase drastically near shutoff as shown in Figure 3.7.

Chapter 3 – Pump Performance

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 Figure 3.6 – Mixed Flow Pump

Figure 3.7 – Axial Flow Pump

Chapter 3 – Pump Performance

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 The distinction between the above three classes is not absolute, and
there are many pumps with characteristics falling somewhere between the
three. For instance, the Francis vane impeller would have a characteristic
between the radial and mixed flow classes. Most turbine pumps are also in
this same range depending upon their specific speeds.

Figure 3.8 below shows a typical pump curve as furnished by a

manufacturer. It is a composite curve which tells at a glance what the
pump will do at a given speed with various impeller diameters from
maximum to minimum. Constant horsepower, efficiency, and NPSHR lines
are superimposed over the various head curves. It is made up from
individual test curves at various diameters.

Figure 3.8 – Composite Performance Curve

Chapter 3 – Pump Performance

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 3.7 Affinity Laws

The affinity laws express the mathematical relationship between the

several variables involved in pump performance. They apply to all types of
centrifugal and axial flow pumps. They are as follows:

With impeller diameter D held constant:

Q1 N
A. = 1
Q2 N2
H1 N
B. = ( 1 )2
H2 N2
BHP1 N
C. = ( 1 )3
BHP2 N2

With speed N held constant:

Q1 D
A. = 1
Q2 D2
H1 D
B. = ( 1 )2
H2 D2
BHP1 D
C. = ( 1 )3
BHP2 D2

Where,
Q = Capacity, GPM
H = Total Head, Feet
BHP = Brake Horsepower
N = Pump Speed, RPM

When the performance (Q1, H1, & BHP1) is known at some particular
speed (N1) or diameter (D1), the formulas can be used to estimate the
performance (Q2, H2, & BHP2) at some other speed (N2) or diameter (D2).
The efficiency remains nearly constant for speed changes and for small
changes in impeller diameter.

Example:
To illustrate the use of these laws, refer to Figure 3.9 below. It
shows the performance of a particular pump at 1750 RPM with various

Chapter 3 – Pump Performance

21
 impeller diameters. This performance data has been determined by actual
tests by the manufacturer. Now assume that you have a 13" maximum
diameter impeller, but you want to belt drive the pump at 2000 RPM.

The affinity laws listed under 1 above will be used to determine the
new performance, with N1 1750 RPM and N2 = 2000 RPM. The first step is
to read the capacity, head, and horsepower at several points on the 13"
diameter curve in Figure 3.9 below. For example, one point may be near
the best efficiency point where the capacity is 300 GPM, the head is 160
ft, and the BHP is approx. 20 hp.

300 1750
A. = Q2 = 343 gpm
Q2 2000
1601 1750 2
B. =( ) H2 = 209 ft
H2 2000
201 1750 3
C. =( ) BHP = 30 hp
BHP2 2000

This will then be the best efficiency point on the new 2000 RPM
curve. By performing the same calculations for several other points on the
1750 RPM curve, a new curve can be drawn which will approximate the
pump's performance at 2000 RPM, Figure 3.9.

Trial and error would be required to solve this problem in reverse.

In other words, assume you want to determine the speed required to
make a rating of 343 GPM at a head of 209 ft. You would begin by
selecting a trial speed and applying the affinity laws to convert the desired
rating to the corresponding rating at 1750 RPM. When you arrive at the
correct speed, 2000 RPM in this case, the corresponding 1750 RPM rating
will fall on the 13" diameter curve.

Chapter 3 – Pump Performance

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 Figure 3.9 – Approximate characteristics of centrifugal pump

Chapter 3 – Pump Performance

23
 3.8 System Curves

For a specified impeller diameter and speed, a centrifugal pump has

a fixed and predictable performance curve. The point where the pump
operates on its curve is dependent upon the characteristics of the system
in which it is operating, commonly called the System Head Curve or the
relationship between flow and hydraulic losses in a system. This
representation is in a graphic form and, since friction losses vary as a
square of the flow rate, the system curve is parabolic in shape.

By plotting the system head curve and pump curve together, it can be
determined:
1. Where the pump will operate on its curve.
2. What changes will occur if the system head curve or the pump
performance curve changes.

3.8.1 No Static Head - All Friction

As the levels in the suction and discharge are the same (Figure
3.10), there is no static head and, therefore, the system curve starts at
zero flow and zero head and its shape is determined solely from pipeline
losses. The point of operation is at the intersection of the system head
curve and the pump curve. The flow rate may be reduced by throttling
valve.

Chapter 3 – Pump Performance

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 Figure 3.10 – No static head

3.8.2 Positive Static Head

The parabolic shape of the system curve is again determined by the

friction losses through the system including all bends and valves. But in
this case there is a positive static head involved. This static head does not
affect the shape of the system curve or its "steepness", but it does dictate
the head of the system curve at zero flow rate.

The operating point is at the intersection of the system curve and

pump curve. Again, the flow rate can be reduced by throttling the
discharge valve.

Chapter 3 – Pump Performance

25
 Figure 3.11 – Positive Suction Head

3.8.3 Negative (Gravity) Head

In the illustration below, a certain flow rate will occur by gravity

head alone. But to obtain higher flows, a pump Is required to overcome
the pipe friction losses in excess of "H" - the head of the suction above the
level of the discharge. In other words, the system curve is plotted exactly
as for any other case involving a static head and friction head, except the
static head is now negative. The system curve begins at a negative value
and shows the limited flow rate obtained by gravity alone. More capacity
requires extra work.

Chapter 3 – Pump Performance

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 Figure 3.12 – Negative (Gravity) Head

3.8.4 Mostly Lift - Little Friction Head

The system head curve in the illustration below starts at the static
head "H" and zero flow. Since the friction losses are relatively small
(possibly due to the large diameter pipe), the system curve is "flat". In
this case, the pump is required to overcome the comparatively large static
head before it will deliver any flow at all.

Chapter 3 – Pump Performance

27
 Figure 3.13 – Mostly Lift - Little Friction Head

Chapter 3 – Pump Performance

28