SESSION 2: BASIC PRODUCTION PROCESSES

 BASIC PRODUCTION PROCESSES IN TEXTILE

INDUSTRY
The textile industry is primarily concerned with the design, production and distribution of
yarn, cloth and clothing. The raw material may be natural or synthetic using products of
the chemical industry.

The first step in creating fabric is yarn production. Here, the raw materials that have been
harvested and processed are transformed from raw fibers into yarn and threads.
This process of joining the yarn together is called weaving. Weaving is done on a machine
known as a loom and requires two sets of yarn. The weaving done in traditional ways is
called ―Handloom Industry‖ and the ones produced with automated machines are called
―Power-loom Industry‖.

Spinning is the twisting together of drawn-out strands of fibers to form yarn, and is a
major part of the textile industry. The yarn is then used to create textiles, which are then
used to make clothing and many other products. Weaving is a method
of textile production in which two distinct sets of yarns or threads are interlaced at right
angles to form a fabric or cloth. The longitudinal threads are called the warp and the
lateral threads are the weft or filling.

A 'handloom' is a loom that is used to weave cloth without the use of any electricity. Hand
weaving is done on pit looms or frame looms generally located in weavers' homes. Hand
spun yarns take time and are part of handicraft sector in our cottage and village industry.
The hand spun yarn uses Charkha or spinning when where cotton or wool fibres are
twisted to make yarn. The KHADI fabrics are one example of fabric made with hand spun
yarn and handloom weaving. Khadi can be in silk, cotton, wool or flax yarn where both
yarn and fabrics are made with hand in traditional way which is eco-friendly and consumes
very less of electrical or heat energy.
Measuring units:
1. Yarn count. The yarn count is a numerical expression which defines its fineness
or coarseness. It also expresses weather the yarn is thick or thin. A definition is
given by the textile institute – ―Count is a number which indicates the mass per
unit length or the length per unit mass of yarn.‖
2. The indirect system or fixed weight system is the yarn count system where the
count of a yarn is calculated by measuring the length of a fixed / definite mass.
3. In this system, the count of yarn is the number of length units in one weight unit.
So, the count number indicates the length per unit mass of the yarn. That is why,
higher the count, finer the yarn. In indirect count system, the mass of yarn is fixed
and the length of yarn varies according to its fineness. This system is widely used
for measuring count of cotton yarns.
4. Fabric thickness is measure with GSM method – gram per square meters
5. Fabric, cloth typically produced by weaving, knitting or knotting textile fibers,
yarns or threads, is measured in units such as the momme, thread count
(a measure of the coarseness or fineness of fabric), ends per inch (e.p.i) and picks
per inch (p.p.i).
6. In general, the higher the ends per inch, the finer the fabric is. The current fashion
is to wear T-shirts with a higher thread count, such as soft and comfortable "30
single" tee shirt that has 30 threads per inch as contrasted to the standard T-shirt
with an 18 thread count per inch.
7. The number of ends per inch in a piece of woven cloth varies depending on the
stage of manufacture. Before the cloth is woven, the warp has a certain number of

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 ends per inch, which is directly related to the size reed being used. After weaving,
the number of ends per inch will increase, and it will increase again after being
washed. This increase in the number of ends per inch (and picks per inch)
and shrinkage in the size of the fabric is known as the take-up. The take-up is
dependent on many factors, including the material and how tightly the cloth is
woven. Tightly woven fabric shrinks more (and thus the number of ends per inch
increases more) than loosely woven fabric, as do more elastic yarns and fibers.
8. Picks per inch/Inch (or p.p.i.) is the number of weft threads per inch of woven
fabric. A pick is a single weft thread hence the term. In general, the higher the
picks per inch, the finer the fabric is.
9. Weaving is a method of textile production in which two distinct sets of yarns or
threads are interlaced at right angles to form a fabric or cloth- Warp (tana in hindi)
is in the lengthwise direction, and Weft (Bana in Hindi) is in the cross wise or
width direction. Other methods are knitting, crocheting, felting, and braiding or
plaiting.
10. Fabric length – is measured in Inches and centimetres.
11. Garment sizing – inches are used for US market and Centimetre is used for
European market.
Source: [Link]
Sources and types.

Textiles are made from many materials, with four main sources: animal (wool, silk), plant
(cotton, flax, jute, bamboo), mineral (asbestos, glass fibre), and synthetic (nylon, polyester,
acrylic, rayon). The first three are natural.
Natural fibres also consist of polymers (in this case, biologically produced compounds
such as cellulose and protein), but they emerge from the textile manufacturing process in a
relatively unaltered state. ... Rayon and acetate therefore belong to a group of man-made
fibres known as regenerated fibres.

Nylon, the first synthetic fiber in the "fully synthetic" sense of that term, was developed
by Wallace Carothers, an American researcher at the chemical firm DuPont in the 1930s. It
soon made its debut in the United States as a replacement for silk, just in time for the
introduction of rationing during World War II.

Synthetic polyester is made using a chemical reaction involving coal, petroleum, air and
water. Polyester is made up of purified terephthalic acid (PTS) or its dimethyl ester
dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) and monotheluene glycol (MEG).

Textiles Mills and Production Cycle

A textile mill is a manufacturing facility where different types of fibers such as yarn or
fabric are produced and processed into usable products. This could be apparel, sheets,
towels, textile bags, and many more.

There are two main types of fabrics: natural and synthetic. Natural fabrics such as wool,
cotton, silk, and linen are made from animal coats, cotton-plant seed pods, fibers from
silkworms, and flax (fiber from the stalk of a plant), respectively.
The handloom weaving process can be complicated, as the weaver has to precisely dye the
threads and then place them exactly in the right pattern on the loom so that it is woven
correctly. The design process takes up to 5 hours to complete, while the dyeing and
drying process can take another 1–3 days for 24 meters.

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 Antique loom for woollen fabrics

Vertical loom for carpets and tapestry

Back strap loom of North East India – Silk and cotton weaving industry

Shuttle for Looms

Additional reading:
Article - Weaving: The complete process from thread to cloth
Available at: [Link]
For handloom production, yarn is colored / dyed in the hank form. Yarn dyeing
for handlooms is a crucial pre loom activity. Natural and chemical colorants are used to
dye hanks. This process of dyeing is done by hand, in small lots.
Traditionally, the dyes were sourced from nature in Indian textiles. For example, Indigo is
a natural dye from leaves of the plant Indigoferra Tinctoria which is fermented to obtain
the Indigo cakes or powder. The peel of Pomegranate (Anaar) gives yellow color and the
root of Madder plant (Manjishta) gives red. It is an eco-friendly process with very less use

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of chemicals and energy. The artisans use wooden blocks to print natural fabrics which are
world famous. Ajrakh block print of Gujrat and Bagru mud resist print of Jaipur are some
of the famous hand printed textile techniques using natural dyes and wooden blocks to
create patterns. The hand-painted natural dyes in the form of paintings were also famous
from India. The water waste from these industries is not harmful for environment and for
the workers involved in the dyeing process. The natural source dyes are skin friendly as
well as impart health properties to the wearer as these natural compounds are anti-fungal
and anti-bacterial in nature.
Additional reading – Case study of Dastkaar Andhra
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
POWERLOOM
A power loom is a mechanized loom, and was one of the key developments in the
industrialization of weaving during the early Industrial Revolution. The first power loom
was designed in 1784 by Edmund Cartwright and first built in 1785. It was refined over
the next 47 years until a design by Kenworthy and Bullough made the operation
completely automatic.
By 1850 there were 260,000 power looms in operation in England. Fifty years later came
the Northrop loom which replenished the shuttle when it was empty
The main components of the loom are the warp beam, heddles, harnesses, shuttle, reed, and
take up roll. In the loom, yarn processing includes shedding, picking, battening and taking-
up operations.

 Shedding. Shedding is the raising of the warp yarns to form a loop through which the
filling yarn, carried by the shuttle, can be inserted. The shed is the vertical space
between the raised and unraised warp yarns. On the modern loom, simple and intricate
shedding operations are performed automatically by the heddle or heald frame, also
known as a harness. This is a rectangular frame to which a series of wires, called
heddles or healds, are attached. The yarns are passed through the eye holes of the
heddles, which hang vertically from the harnesses. The weave pattern determines
which harness controls which warp yarns, and the number of harnesses used depends
on the complexity of the weave. Two common methods of controlling the heddles are
dobbies and a Jacquard Head.
 Picking. As the harnesses raise the heddles or healds, which raise the warp yarns, the
shed is created. The filling yarn is inserted through the shed by a small carrier device
called a shuttle. The shuttle is normally pointed at each end to allow passage through
the shed. In a traditional shuttle loom, the filling yarn is wound onto a quill, which in
turn is mounted in the shuttle. The filling yarn emerges through a hole in the shuttle as
it moves across the loom. A single crossing of the shuttle from one side of the loom to
the other is known as a pick. As the shuttle moves back and forth across the shed, it
weaves an edge, or selvage, on each side of the fabric to prevent the fabric from
raveling.
 Battening. As the shuttle moves across the loom laying down the fill yarn, it also
passes through openings in another frame called a reed (which resembles a comb).
With each picking operation, the reed presses or battens each filling yarn against the
portion of the fabric that has already been formed. The point where the fabric is
formed is called the fell. Conventional shuttle looms can operate at speeds of about
150 to 200 picks per minute
With each weaving operation, the newly constructed fabric must be wound on a cloth
beam. This process is called taking up. At the same time, the warp yarns must be let off or
released from the warp beams. To become fully automatic, a loom needs a filling stop
motion which will brake the loom, if the weft thread breaks.

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Power looms reduced demand for skilled hand weavers, initially causing reduced wages
and unemployment. Protests followed their introduction. For example, in 1816 two
thousand rioting Calton weavers tried to destroy power loom mills and stoned the
workers.[8] In the longer term, by making cloth more affordable the power loom increased
demand and stimulated exports, causing a growth in industrial employment, albeit low-
paid.[9] The power loom also opened up opportunities for women mill workers.[10] A darker
side of the power loom's impact was the growth of employment of children in power loom
mills.[11]

Dangers

When operated by a skilled and attentive weaver, looms are not dangerous by themselves.
However, there are a number of inherent dangers in the machines, to which inattentive or
poorly trained weavers can fall victim. The most obvious is the moving reed, the frames
which hold the heddles and the "pinch" or "sand" roll utilized to keep the cloth tight as it
passes over the front of the machine and onto the doff roll. The most common injury in
weaving is pinched fingers from distracted or bored workers, though this is not the only
such injury found. There are numerous accounts of weavers with long hair getting it
tangled in the warp itself and having their scalp pulled away from the skull, or large
chunks of hair pulled off.[12] As a result of this, it has become industry standard for
companies to require weavers to either keep hair up and tied, or to keep their hair short so
as not to allow it to become tangled. Also, due to possible pinch points on the front of
machines, loose, baggy clothing is prohibited. One complication for weavers, in the terms
of safety, is the loud nature in which weave mills operate. Because of this, it is nearly
impossible to hear a person calling for help when entangled, and has led OSHA to outline
specific guidelines [13] for companies to mitigate the chance of such circumstances from
happening. However, even with such guidelines in place, injuries in textile production, due
to the machines themselves, are still commonplace.
Source - [Link]

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Power loom
KNITTED FABRICS
The woven fabrics are made of warp and weft yarns. The knitted fabrics, as another
category of fabrics, are made with interloping of yarns just like your mother used to knit
woollen sweaters for you. The yarn can be of cotton, polyester or wool. The making
process of knitted fabric is on machines only and they are characterized by their ability to
stretch on body of the wearer. The T shirts and jogging pants used in sportswear category
are made of knitted fabric.
A simple guide to design and production of knitted garments is given in slide below –
There are three types of fabric manufacturing process. They are weaving, knitting and non-
weaving. Knitted fabric produced by loop forming. Such type of fabric have huge demand
in present world. For manufacturing of knitted fabric, process flow chart of knitting
technology is given below.

Circular Knitting

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Process Flow Chart for Knitting

Yarn in package form

↓
Place the yarn package in the creel
↓
Feeding the yarn
↓
Set the m/c as per design & GSM
↓
Knitting
↓
Withdraw the roll fabric and weighting
↓
Roll marking
↓
Inspection
↓
Numbering
↓
Dispatching
Designing with fabric involves creativity and imagination. The industry process consists of
planning, sourcing, executing and selling the products in accordance with customer needs,
demands and fashion trends.
Additional reading
Fashion design [Link]
Textile Design [Link]
Harmful effects of Textile industry
Textile production impacts the environment in many ways. Farms that grow crops like
cotton use lots of water and spray their plants with harmful substances like herbicides and
pesticides.
Textile dyeing, printing, and finishing processes often use poisonous chemicals like
arsenic, formaldehyde, lead, and mercury. Organic cotton crop does not
use harmful chemicals like synthetic fertilizers or pesticides. As a result, it doesn't poison
the water, soil or air, and is even beneficial to the environment. Cotton workers on
organic cotton farms are spared from health problems caused by chemicals
in cotton farming. For example, indigenous cotton crop of Kutchch region in Gujrat uses
only rain water and natural manure from animal droppings. This is called as ―Kala Cotton‖
and has seen a revival in recent decades.
Due to awareness of this aspect, many designers and big companies are working with
organic process of growing crops (cotton, hemp, jute), rearing sheep farms in eco-friendly
ways and manufacturing fabric using solar energy in spinning wheels as well as natural
dyeing process to avoid chemical based dyeing that has lead to soil and water pollution in
big way.
Additional Reading
1. Environmental concern in Textile and Fashion industry

[Link]
environment-by-textile-industry
[Link]
leather-processing-units
2. Pit loom weaving

[Link]
3. Making of cotton yarn video

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 [Link]
4. Silk Weaving video – natural dyes and weft ikat
[Link]
5. Looms of Assam
[Link]
6. Working of Charkha – spinning wheel of Punjab
[Link]
7. Garment production process
[Link]
8. Handloom weaving – Dastkar Andhra
[Link]
content/uploads/2015/12/[Link]
9. Bunkar documentary – trailer (Banarasi weaving Vs Powerloom) Video
[Link]
10. Ajrakh printing of Gujrat
[Link]
[Link]
11. The Design process in fashion product development
[Link]
fashion-product-development

 Basic production process in Wood industry

What Is Woodw orking?
Woodworking means a lot of things, but here‘s reasonably boring definition I came up
with that most hobbyists will probably agree with.

Woodworking is a productive craft that involves cutting, shaping, and joining wood to
create decorative and/or useful things.
There is nothing physically demanding about woodworking and you can build at your own
pace. The basic concepts are simple to learn, yet it‘s a hobby that will always remain fresh
and challenging as your skills evolve. If you love problem-solving, you will love
woodworking. I‘ve been at this for over 40 years and face new challenges with every
project I build. It‘s part of the process. It‘s also rewarding to produce really cool stuff for
your home using your hands and brain. In general, woodworking is a very solitary
experience: if you are a bit introverted and love taking on tasks from start to finish, you
will love woodworking.

Who Are Woodw orkers ?

There used to be two stereotypes of woodworkers. The cranky shop teacher who taught a
really boring class to kids who didn‘t want to be there, and the retired grandpa who
puttered around in his garage with a lot of time to build an occasional birdhouse.

Thankfully, those stereotypes are no longer true. There is more diversity in woodworking
now than ever before, thanks to online communities and the affordability of tools and
materials.

In the past ten years there has been a huge rise in two groups of people making
woodworking a hobby. First, women. It wasn‘t that long ago when a female woodworker
was unusual. Today, women woodworkers are commonplace. There is nothing about
woodworking that anyone can‘t do.

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The second huge demographic spike has been among millennials, people in their 20s and
30s. I hear from people all the time who work in Silicon Valley or just have some sort of
office job and feel the need to make things with their hands.

WHAT’S THE DIFFERENC E BETWEEN A “MAKER” AND A

“WOODWORKER”?

A maker is a relatively new term that has cropped up in the past decade or so. It‘s an all-
encompassing term for people who like to dabble in different crafts. This could mean a
little woodworking, metalworking, epoxying, concreting, computer programming,
electronics, 3D printing, baking, sewing, knitting, jewelry making, sculpting, ceramics,
robotics, even playing with Legos. So basically, we are all makers.

A woodworker is a maker who is mostly interested in learning and refining the craft of
creating things out of wood. Sometimes we bring other materials into our projects, but the
focus is on the wood. It‘s an affordable, timeless material that‘s easy to build with.

WHAT’S TH E DIF FERENC E BETWEEN WOODWORKIN G AND

CARPENTRY?

This is a little vague, but I tend to think of carpenters as building structures…homes and
buildings. Construction work. I don‘t think of framing a house out of posts, beams and
2x4s as woodworking. Woodworking tends to be building furniture and other items that
are moveable. That said, there are a lot of people who refer to woodworkers as carpenters
so it doesn‘t really matter.

WHAT’S THE DIF FERENC E BETWEEN CABINETMAK ING AND

FURNITURE MAKING?

Again, there is no solid line between these two terms but to me, cabinet makers build
things that are permanently mounted into place, such as your kitchen cabinets and are
mostly concerned with the surfaces that will be visible.

Furniture can be positioned anywhere the owner likes and therefore more parts of the
finished piece can be visible.

Cabinets might use plywood more than most furniture and are assembled using screws and
other mechanical fasteners, while furniture is often uses solid lumber and is usually
assembled with stronger joinery and glue. Furniture making might demand higher
precision.

But there is a lot of overlap here. I‘ve built plenty of furniture with plywood and screws
and I‘ve seen some amazing cabinetry that rivals high-end furniture.

TYPES OF WOODWORKING

You might have an image in your mind of what woodworking will entail, but there are a
few different ways people approach this craft.

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HAND TOOL WOODWORKIN G

Hand tool woodworking has had a huge revival in the last 20 years. Hand tool
woodworkers choose to use classical tools and methods to build things. Hand saws,
chisels, scrapers and planes are preferred over anything that plugs into a wall.

Getting started can be very inexpensive, but as your skills improve and the mania sets in,
you will discover that a $200 precision hand plane is not unusual.

Hand tool woodworkers probably feel more of a connection to the process than any other
type of woodworker. It takes patience, has a longer learning curve, it‘s a slower way to
build and a lot quieter. But the personal fulfillment and satisfaction can be enormous.

POWER TOOL WOODWORKI NG

I would guess that 90% of woodworkers today are power tool woodworkers. Everything I
do on this channel and in my Weekend Woodworker courses are geared toward plugging in
tools. Or charging batteries.

Power tools such as miter saws, table saws, drills, sanders are ubiquitous and can be a very
affordable way to start building projects right away. Cutting a board on a table saw doesn‘t
take anywhere near the skill and finesse of using a handsaw and takes a fraction of the
time.

The biggest drawback to using power tools is that they have the potential to cause serious
injuries. It‘s nothing that should prevent you from using them, but you need to really
familiarize yourself with safety procedures. Please see my Safety Basics video for more
tips.

DIGITAL WOODWORKING
Digital machines have been around for a while, but have become more affordable in the
past few years and are appealing to more and more hobbyists. The primary tool here is the
CNC machine that makes precision cuts on flat pieces of wood using a router. You will
need to layout and design all of your work on a computer and the machine will take care of
the rest, cutting out all your pieces. You don‘t even have to be in the same room when it‘s
cutting.

The second tool some hobbyists invest in is a laser cutter or engraver. This tool allows you
to make even more precise cuts than a CNC and create some beautiful art.

The biggest drawbacks to using digital machines are their cost. You can easily spend
thousands of Rupees on them. They have their limitations and you will probably still want
a table saw and other power tools in your shop. Some people feel digital tools make them
less ―connected‖ to their woodworking and remove the satisfaction of making things by
hand.

BLENDED WOODWORKING

Most people have a mixture of hand tools and power tools in their shops. For instance
blended approach to woodworking might make most cuts using a table saw, but use a
chisel to hand cut dovetails. Some people find that hand tools offer greater precision and
control for cutting technically demanding joints and enjoy improving their skills at these
tasks.
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SPECIALTY WOODWO RKING

There are two types of woodworking that some enthusiasts, usually people with an artistic
bent, specialize in. Woodturning and scrolling.

Woodturning involves using a lathe to create bowls, spindles and other rounded projects.
It‘s kind of like sculpting clay on a potter‘s wheel, only with wood and chisels. The only
real downside to getting into woodturning is that lathes can be pretty expensive.
Scrolling involves using a scroll saw which is capable of cutting extremely tiny curves and
intricate patterns. It takes practice to become proficient, but it‘s relaxing and you can create
some stunning art with a scroll saw. Unlike a lathe, scroll saws are relatively inexpensive.
They are pretty quiet and don‘t make a huge mess.
You can certainly find uses for both tools in a standard woodworking shop, maybe you
need to make occasional table legs or add some decorative scrollwork to a fancy bookcase,
but in general they aren‘t tools you will use that often.

RAPID FIRE RO UND!

IS WOODWORKING DANGE ROUS?
It‘s probably safer than driving, but not as safe as not woodworking. Understand how your
tools work and learn how to use them correctly. Use common sense.

IS WOODWORKING EXPEN SIVE?

Doesn‘t have to be.

DOES IT REQUIRE A LO T OF PHYSICAL STRENG TH?

Nope.

DOES IT TAKE A LOT OF TIME TO MAKE THINGS?

It can. But I prefer to make projects that I can complete in a weekend or two.

DO YOU NEED A LOT OF SPACE?

Nope. I used to build on the roof of my apartment.

IS THERE A LONG LEAR NING CURVE?

No. The basics of woodworking are simple. In my weekend woodworker course, I teach
you how to complete your first project in two days.

CAN I DO THIS?

Yes

REALLY?

Yes

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 WHY DO PEOPLE ENJOY WOODWORKING?

I think one of the reasons why woodworking has become a crazy popular hobby in the past
few years is that it offers people a retreat from all the noise that fills our lives these days.
When you step into a woodworking shop to build something, it‘s just you. You enter your
shop with an idea of what you want to accomplish and can envision what it will look like
when you‘re done. You‘ll create something from nothing using logic, intelligence, problem
solving skills, and common sense. YOU will be fully responsible for every aspect of
making a project, from finding a plan or designing your own, to selecting the tools you will
use, obtaining lumber and other materials, to determining a course of action, and to
overcoming challenges. It‘s a rewarding process.

Woodworking is fun and you get to make cool stuff for you house, but ultimately it‘s about
discovering who we are and finding out that life can offer so many more internal rewards if
we simply take the time to create. Unplug yourself for a few hours a week and plug in
some power tools.

For additional resources sure to check out my video on the ―7 Essential Power Tools for
New Woodworkers‖. And for everything else you will need to get started, be sure to
download my free guide to setting up a shop for under $1000 at [Link]. You
should also check out my video, ―18 things every beginning woodworker should know.‖

Source: [Link]
guide/

Wood industry in India

India Woodwork Industry is one of the fastest growing industries in India's economy. India
possesses around 100,000 registered wood ware units and more than 200,000 artisans
along with countless other woodworking related units in the sector. Wood has always been
a major part of Indian handicrafts and various beautiful things are crafted out of it. India
takes pride in manufacturing exquisite and handsome wooden handicrafts in diverse
motifs.
Any industry which depends on forests for their raw material requirement is
considered to be forest or wood based industry. India is one of the leading countries
with mushrooming of wood based industries which include pulp and paper, match,
saw wood, veneer and plywood, pencil and dendro biomass industries.
The wooden handicraft of India is draped with a vast cultural and ethnic diversity which is
applied to a range of themes, techniques and crafts. These wooden handicrafts are unique
in their own style and are claimed to be an absolute personification of the Indian heritage.
India Woodwork Industry has not only specialized in serving architectural purpose but also
manufactures furniture both in traditional as well as ultramodern style.

In the rural areas of India, furniture and other household utensils are carved out of wood in
different shapes and styles. These simple objects are so uniquely blend that they in no way
look like daily use stuffs. Animal figures are also an excellent example of India's ethnic
woodwork. These wide ranging exclusive styles adopted by the India woodwork industry
to carve out various stupefying objects are prepared in different parts of India. Some of the
most well-known states of India involved in woodwork are as follows:

 Gujarat - Famous for woodwork in carved chests, almirahs, and wooden swings. The
wooden swings vary from plain Hewn wood to lavishly embellished ones. There is also a
tradition of embedding indigenously made gold, silver, and bronze hues on wood in a
place called Sankheda village in Gujarat. Surat, another place in Gujarat, is well-known
for its marquetry-work which is called as 'Sadeli' by local people.

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 Kashmir- Famous for its exclusive Kashmir houseboat made out of a specially mollified
wood that does not soak in water. Also, the houses in Kashmir are made of wood with
latticework windows and geometrically patterned ceilings.

 Hoshiarpur (Punjab) - Gained immense popularity for carving inlaying ivory which is
now replaced with plastic to cut down on the cost. Wooden furniture, trays, and mirror
frames are usually crafted using intricate designs that were claimed to be the royal
patronage ages back.

 Saharanpur (U.P) - The leading place for commercial purposes. Sheesham and Teak are
the chief woods used for manufacturing traditional as well as contemporary designed
products-screens, cigarette boxes, tables, trivets, bookends, and so on. Of late, Saharanpur
is dealing with wood seasoning only.

 Kerala - Specializes in arena handicrafts that along with representing their customs and
beliefs also portray their spiritual values and emotions.

 Other areas - West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh are also engaged in
carving out various uniquely designed items out of wood.

India Woodwork Industry uses various kinds of woods, for example, Walnut, Sandalwood,
Teak, Sheesham, Deodar, Ebony, Redwood, Rosewood, Red, Cedar, Sal, and many more.
Recently, embedding of brass wires (Tarkashi) has gained lot of attention worldwide. India
has set up over 3,000 woodworking units and the number is increasing with the passage of
time.
Source: [Link]
The forest based industry is growing rapidly with the increasing demand for furniture,
housing, construction material, packaging, agriculture good, sports goods, plywood,
veneer, matches etc. Similarly the biomass based power generation industries are also on
the raise across the country to generate electricity from forest biomass. This growing
demand of wood and wood based industries will create a wood deficit of 20-70 million
cubic meter by 2020.

The following are the major forest based industries which depend heavily on forest and
agroforestry plantation to meet the raw material requirement.

1. Pulp and Paper Industries:

The pulp and paper industry is one of the key industries in India and it is highly
fragmented. Today, there are about 700 paper mills in India with 33 in the large scale
sector. During 1990s, the per capita consumption of paper was 3.3 kg which has now
escalated to 8 kg, but still lower compared to the global average of 47.7 kg. The current
production of raw material for pulp and paper production is 2.76 million tons as against the
demand of 5.04 million tonnes. The shortfall is as high as 45 per cent.
2. Match Industries:
Match wood industry is one of the oldest wood based industries in India. About 75 per cent
of the total match wood industries in the country are located in the state of Tamil Nadu
which comprises nearly 6,000 match industries with mechanized, semi mechanized and as
cottage industry. The per capita consumption of matches in India increased steadily from
2.45 kg (1970) to 4.25 kg (1987).
3. Timber and Sawn Wood Industries:
Traditionally people in the country predominantly use timber and other converted wood in
all their domestic and industrial wood requirement. The rapid population growth,
urbanization and industrialization resulted in greater usage of wood in furniture, housing

82
and construction material. During, 2010-2012 more than 500 million square feet of space is
estimated to be built in urban areas of the country and the wood products were valued
around US Dollar 3 billion.
With greater usage wood as a predominant material for housing and construction material
in urban and semi urban areas there is going to be a great demand for timber and other
sawn wood requirement. The Indian furniture market is estimated at 8 billion US Dollar
and in most cases raw materials are imported from various countries.

Major Timber Species:

I Tectona grandis
ii. Terminalia spp.
iii. Albizia spp.
iv. Gmelina arborea
v. Azadirachta indica
vi. Pterocarpus spp.
vii. Mangifera indica

4. Plywood Industries:
One of the fastest growing in India is the plywood industry. The industrialization and
urbanization and the increased interest on interior decorations have made great usage of
plywood in the country. Wide range of species have been found amenable for making face,
core and inner veneers resulted in establishment of more than 2,000 small scale industries
involved in plywood manufacture.
The liberalization and privatization policy of government of India also significantly
contributed towards establishment of new rural industries. These industries also depend
heavily on various species which thereby attracted large scale promotion of plywood based
industrial wood plantations.
Major Plywood Species:
i. Populus spp.
ii. Melia dubia
iii. Paulownia spp.

5. Particle Board Industries:

Particle board is reconstituted constructional panel particularly developed as a substitute
for natural constructional wood and is made from low grade waste woods or from ligneous
agricultural residues. These particle boards are predominantly used for wall paneling and
interior decorations in domestic and industrial wood sector. In India, the first particle board
industry was set up in late 1950s at Sitapur in Uttar Pradesh and from then onwards large
number of industries has been installed across the country.
Major Raw Materials:
i. All types of wood waste
ii. All types of pine needles
iii. All types of Casuarina needles
iv. Ligneous agriculture residues

6. Fibre Board Industries:

Fibre board is constituted using sheet materials of widely varying diversities manufactured
from refined or partially refined wood fibers or other vegetable fibers.

83
7. Dendro Biomass Power Generation Industries:

Biomass is an important fuel source in overall energy scenario. Biomass is produced

through chemical storage of solar energy in plants and other organic matter as a result of
photosynthesis. This biomass include plantation that produces energy crops, natural
vegetable growth and other organic waste and residues.
Among all these biomass, the role of dendro biomass is very significant due to their higher
calorific value and increased fuel efficiency. Hence, large number of dendro biomass based
power plants has been established across the country to generate electricity.
8. Value Addition Industries:

The wood based industries have to store the harvested raw materials during rainy season in
order to have sustainable raw material availability and to sustain the industrial process
during lean season. The post-harvest management of huge volume of industrial wood
necessitates proper handling, storage and utilization which demand a scientific intervention
in order to reduce post-harvest losses due to biological agents particularly powder post
beetles and pin hole borers.

These biological agents are taking heavy toll of stored industrial raw materials which need
to be addressed. Hence large number wood seasoning and preservative industries have
been established to avoid post-harvest losses. Similarly, the plantation and industrial
processing activities accounts for 20-30 per cent of wood residues which are either
unutilized or underutilized for want of suitable recycling technologies.

These plantation and industrial wood residues have been successfully value added into
briquettes and as on today many industries have been established across the country and
successful value addition using plantation residues have been evidenced. These value
added briquettes acted as excellent feed stock for biomass power generation industry,
boiler industries and other industries requiring biomass for meeting the energy demands.
The entire value addition process of plantation residues is depicted in Figure below.

Source: [Link]
forest-based-industries-forestry/4752

84
 Basic Carpentry tools
Hand tools list
 saw.
 hammer.
 cultivator.
 rake.
 ladder.
 file.
 gloves.
 wheelbarrow. mallet. chisel. screwdriver. wrench. hand drill. level. ax. pliers. clamp. bolt
cutter. box cutter. shears. vise. nut. bolt. nail. screw. tape measure. shovel. Allen key.
Power tools.

85
86
Measuring tools

87
Woodworking machines trace their origins to 18th century England. They were important
tools in the production of furniture. People also used them to make things such as, carts,
wagons, axles, yokes and wheels. Currently, there are different categories of woodwork
machinery for industrial use. Examples of woodworking machinery include:
• Jointers
Jointers are woodworking machines that flattens and straightens the edges of wood boards.
Various industries also use it to smoothen bottom of the wood board. This allows the board
to mover accurately through planers.
The structure of a jointer comprises an infeed table that is movable. Jointers also come
embedded with outfeed tables and spinning heads. The latter contains knives.
• Table saws
Table saws consist of adjustable arbors with motors. They must also have a blade, fence
and flat table for them to work properly. The functions of table saws majorly center on
ripping and cross-cutting wood boards. In the former‘s case, industries cut the wood boards
along their grains. This is the opposite case in cross-cutting, which involves cutting across
the board‘s grain.
• Shapers
As their name suggests, shapers are woodworking machinery that bring shapes to timber.
In conjunction with cutters, they are appropriate for manufacturing accents for Australian
crown moldings or furniture.
• Chisel mortisers and chains
These woodworking machines are relevant when producing precise holes on pieces of
wood. They have the ability to control the hole‘s depth as per the desired measurement.
• Routers
Routers are very important tools when seeking to make intricate circles, patterns or designs
in timber. There are various kinds of routers that comprise mid-range, hobby, specialty and
multi-axis routers. CNC Routers are a step above, favoured with very high end industrial
woodworkers.
Regulations regarding woodworking machinery
Wood based industries need to take care of their woodworking machinery. Failure to do
this results in various problems like physical injuries, inefficient tools and poor
productivity. Central to the safety regulations for woodworking machinery is protective
gear.
It is imperative that workers should don safety gears when operating woodworking
equipment. For instance, they must use hearing protection aids when operating noisy tools.
Safety glasses are a must for all woodworking machinery.
Also, woodworking machines need regular maintenance to keep them in tip-top condition.
Examples of maintenance practices include blade sharpening, lubrication, greasing and
consistent cleaning. Generally, they must be free from wood chippings, dust and scrap.
This way, Australian wood shops can reduce risks and improve workers‘ productivity.
Source: [Link]
industrial-use-0244570

88
10 STAGES OF FURNITURE PRODUCTION May 7, 2018

Furniture. We use them every day. Without them, our apartments and houses would be
empty and uncomfortable. But do we know how they arise? This article in a clear and
transparent way will explain what steps wood goes through to become a beautiful and
comfortable piece of furniture in our apartment.

Stage 1 – furniture design.

Before producers start producing furniture, they must be designed. Designers have many
ideas for furniture in various styles. In recent years, apart from the appearance of furniture,
great importance is attached to its functionality. The approved project is sent to the
production hall, where the next stages of furniture creation follow.

Stage 2 – Selection of materials for the production of furniture.

The furniture production process begins with the preparation of the right material. The
most common materials from which furniture is made are wood and wood-like products.
Manufacturers of solid wood furniture must first select a tree species. Pine is the most
commonly used tree species for furniture production. The furniture is made of oak, beech
and ash wood, as well as ebony or cherry.

89
Stage 3 – Shearing and transport.

In the next stage, the trees of selected species are cut out. These works are carried out by
qualified woodcutters using specialized equipment. Then the wood is transported to the
sawmill. At this point, the wood is cut into boards and transported to the dryer.

Stage 4 – Drying.

The process of drying wood is extremely important, because it has a big impact on the
quality of manufactured furniture. In a situation where the wood is very dry, it dries in the
apartment as a finished piece of furniture. Then the deformation process takes place. The
standard adopted for the production of furniture is humidity reduced to 8-10%. The use of
this standard significantly affects the quality of furniture.

Stage 6 – Execution of individual pieces of furniture.

The next stage in creating furniture is to make all the elements of a particular piece of
furniture in accordance with the design. Machines are used during this process, so it takes
relatively quickly. The use of the latest technology and good quality equipment means that
every piece of furniture is precise. The accuracy and precision of the individual elements is
very important, because it affects the quality of furniture and makes it easier to adjust
when assembling furniture.

Stage 7 – Grinding.

Each cut part after the finished stage goes to the appropriate departments. It‘s polished
there. Thanks to this, the furniture is smooth and has no shards.

Stage 8 – Painting and varnishing.

The next stage of furniture production is giving it a final look. To give the wood shine and
make it resistant to water, each piece of furniture overlaps with the preservative layer. It
can be varnish, stain or wax. Then the elements are polished.

Stage 9 – Packaging and transporting items to the store.

Finished furniture elements are packed and prepared for transport. Each package contains
all the elements necessary to assemble furniture. The finished packages are transported to
the store where you can buy them. Thanks to the fact that the furniture is spread, it is easier
to carry.

Stage 10 – Assembly of furniture.

After purchase and delivery to the apartment, please send it. The packaging in which the
furniture is located is accompanied by instructions. According to the recommendations, we
will assemble the elements in the purchased furniture.

Source: [Link]
―Drawing a piece‘s design plays a key role in the decision process between you, the maker,
and your client. By seeing and agreeing to the final design, you know that the client will be
delighted with the furniture on delivery.‖

90
In order to develop the design for a piece of furniture, a student needs to answer a series of
questions in an organized way. Design must follow a systematic process.

[Link]
Drawing video:
[Link]
How to draw Easy furniture - perspective drawing 12
Software
Furniture design software allows you to create amazing furniture items on your PC.
Whether you work as a furniture designer or you simply want to design your own pieces of
furniture, the tools that we‘re going to list in this article will help you get the job done.
Some of these are –
Solid Works is very versatile furniture design software that you can use for living rooms,
dining rooms, bedrooms and offices. The CAD models support a wide variety of materials,
including stainless steel furniture, wooden furniture, as well as custom-design furniture.

91
CAD Pro Furniture Design Software

CAD Pro is drafting software that lets you design, visualize, and share your furniture
design ideas. You can use this tool to design any piece of furniture that you want, from
classic tables to extravagant chairs.

PRO100 Furniture Design Software

PRO100 is professional software for furniture and interior design. This tool will allow you
to design the interior of kitchens, bathrooms and living rooms faster and more efficiently.

92
 One of the main strong points of this tool is the quality of visualisation. The crystal-clear
detailed images that PRO100 renders are very useful, allowing you to spot even the tinniest
design details.

The latest version of the tool brings even more impressive features to the table:

 Design export to 3D panoramas (including VR glasses, mobile devices, web sites)

 Swap any part, e.g. handles, fittings, drawers
 Distribution tool (e.d. for shelves or lights arrangement at equal distances from
each other)
 Export to *.jpg files
Source: [Link]
Furniture design articles and videos:
1. Furniture Design Principles: Making Prototypes and Scaled Models

[Link]
2. Sutainable furniture designs

[Link]
design/
3. Design trends in Interior Design – Recycling and sustainable furniture concepts

[Link]
sustainable-scandinese-curves
4. Top 10 Eco-furniture pieces
[Link]
lliving
5. Best new green materials for your furniture

[Link]

 Basic production processes in metal industry

Fundamentals of Metal Forming

There are four basic production processes for producing desired shape of a product. These
are casting, machining, joining (welding, mechanical fastners, epoxy, etc.), and
deformation processes. Casting process exploit the fluidity of a metal in liquid state as it
takes shape and solidifies in a mold. Machining processes provide desired shape with good
accuracy and precision but tend to waste material in the generation of removed portions.
Joining processes permit complex shapes to be constructed from simpler components and
have a wide domain of applications.

Deformation processes exploit a remarkable property of metals, which is their ability to

flow plastically in the solid state without deterioration of their properties. With the
application of suitable pressures, the material is moved to obtain the desired shape with
almost no wastage. The required pressures are generally high and the tools and equipment
needed are quite expensive. Large production quantities are often necessary to justify the
process.

93
 Fig 1.1 State of the stresses metal undergo during deformation.

As a metal is deformed (or formed, as often called) into useful shape, it experiences
stresses such as tension, compression, shear, or various combinations thereof Fig
1.1 illustrates these states of stresses. Some common metal forming processes are
schematically given in Fig 1.2 along with the state of stress(es) experienced by the metal
during the process.

State of Stress in
Number Process Main Part
During Forming
Rolling

Bi-axial
1
compression

94
 Forging

Tri-axial
2
compression

Tri-axial
3
compression

Extrusion
swaging

Bi-axial
4
compression

In flange of blank,
bi-axial tension
and compression.
5 Deep
In wall of cup,
simple uni-axial
tension.

95
 drawing
Wire and tube drawing

Bi-axial
6 compression,
tension.

Straight bending

At bend, bi-axial
7 compression and
bi-axial tension

Fig 1.2 Common metal forming processes. State of stress experienced

by metal is also given
To understand the forming of metal, it is important to know the structure of metals. Metals
are crystalline in nature and consist of irregularly shaped grains of various sizes. Each
grain is made up of atoms in an orderly arrangement, known as a lattice. The orientation of
the atoms in a grain is uniform but differs in adjacent grains. When a force is applied to
deform it or change its shape, a lot of changes occur in the grain structure. These include
grain fragmentation, movement of atoms, and lattice distortion. Slip planes develop
through the lattice structure at points where the atom bonds of attraction are the weakest
and whole blocks of atoms are displaced. The orientation of atoms, however, does not
change when slip occurs.

To deform the metal permanently, the stress must exceed the elastic limit. At room
temperature, the metal is in a more rigid state than when at higher temperature. Thus, to
deform the metal greater pressures are needed when it is in cold state than when in hot
state.

96
When metal is formed in cold state, there is no recrystallization of grains and thus recovery
from grain distortion or fragmentation does not take place. As grain deformation proceeds,
greater resistance to this action results in increased hardness and strength. The metal is said
to be strain hardened. There are several theories to explain this occurrence. In general,
these refer to resistance build up in the grains by atomic dislocation, fragmentation, or
lattice distortion, or a combination of the three phenomena.

The amount of deformation that a metal can undergo at room temperature depends on its
ductility. The higher the ductility of a metal, the more the deformation it can undergo. Pure
metals can withstand greater amount of deformation than metals having alloying elements,
since alloying increases the tendency and rapidity of strain hardening. Metals having large
grains are more ductile than those having smaller grains.

When metal is deformed in cold state, severe stresses known as residual stresses are set up
in the material. These stresses are often undesirable, and to remove them the metal is
heated to some temperature below the recrystallize range temperature. In this temperature
range, the stresses are rendered ineffective without appreciable change in physical
properties or grain structure.

Cold And Hot Working Of Metals

Cold Working:
Plastic deformation of metals below the recrystallization temperature is known as cold
working. It is generally performed at room temperature. In some cases, slightly elevated
temperatures may be used to provide increased ductility and reduced strength. Cold
working offers a number of distinct advantages, and for this reason various cold-working
processes have become extremely important. Significant advances in recent years have
extended the use of cold forming, and the trend appears likely to continue.

In comparison with hot working, the advantages of cold working

are:
1. No heating is required

2. Better surface finish is obtained

3. Better dimensional control is achieved; therefore no secondary machining is generally

needed.

4. Products possess better reproducibility and interchangeability.

5. Better strength, fatigue, and wear properties of material.

6. Directional properties can be imparted.

7. Contamination problems are almost negligible.

97
Some disadvantages associated with cold-working processes are:

1. Higher forces are required for deformation.

2. Heavier and more powerful equipment is required.

3. Less ductility is available.

4. Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-free.

5. Strain hardening occurs (may require intermediate annealing).

6. Undesirable residual stresses may be produced

Cold forming processes, in general, are better suited to large-scale production of parts
because of the cost of the required equipment and tooling.

Warm Working:

Metal deformation carried out at temperatures intermediate to hot and cold forming is
called Warm Forming. Compared to cold forming, warm forming offers several
advantages. These include:

• Lesser loads on tooling and equipment

• Greater metal ductility

• Fewer number of annealing operation (because of less strain hardening)

Compared to hot forming, warm forming offers the following advantages.

• Lesser amount of heat energy requirement

• Better precision of components

• Lesser scaling on parts

• Lesser decarburization of parts

• Better dimensional control

• Better surface finish

• Lesser thermal shock on tooling

• Lesser thermal fatigue to tooling, and so greater life of tooling.

Hot Working:
Plastic deformation of metal carried out at temperature above the recrystallization
temperature, is called hot working. Under the action of heat and force, when the atoms of
metal reach a certain higher energy level, the new crystals start forming. This is called

98
recrystallization. When this happens, the old grain structure deformed by previously
carried out mechanical working no longer exist, instead new crystals which are strain-free
are formed.

In hot working, the temperature at which the working is completed is critical since any
extra heat left in the material after working will promote grain growth, leading to poor
mechanical properties of material.

In comparison with cold working, the advantages of hot working

are:
1. No strain hardening
2. Lesser forces are required for deformation
3. Greater ductility of material is available, and therefore more deformation is
possible.
4. Favorable grain size is obtained leading to better mechanical properties of material
5. Equipment of lesser power is needed
6. No residual stresses in the material.

Some disadvantages associated in the hot-working of metals are:

1. Heat energy is needed
2. Poor surface finish of material due to scaling of surface
3. Poor accuracy and dimensional control of parts
4. Poor reproducibility and interchangeability of parts
5. Handling and maintaining of hot metal is difficult and troublesome
6. Lower life of tooling and equipment.

Rolling (metalworking)
"Rolling mill" redirects here. For mills that use rollers to crush grain
or stone, see roller mill.

Rolling schematic view

99
Rolling visualization. (Click on image to view animation.)

In metalworking, rolling is a metal forming process in which metal stock is passed through
one or more pairs of rolls to reduce the thickness and to make the thickness uniform. The
concept is similar to the rolling of dough. Rolling is classified according to the temperature
of the metal rolled. If the temperature of the metal is above
its recrystallization temperature, then the process is known as hot rolling. If the
temperature of the metal is below its recrystallization temperature, the process is known
as cold rolling. In terms of usage, hot rolling processes more tonnage than any other
manufacturing process, and cold rolling processes the most tonnage out of all cold
working processes.[1][2] Roll stands holding pairs of rolls are grouped together into rolling
mills that can quickly process metal, typically steel, into products such as structural
steel (I-beams, angle stock, channel stock), bar stock, and rails. Most steel mills have
rolling mill divisions that convert the semi-finished casting products into finished products.
There are many types of rolling processes, including ring rolling, roll bending, roll
forming, profile rolling, and controlled rolling.

Iron and steel

Slitting mill, 1813.

The invention of the rolling mill in Europe may be attributed to Leonardo da Vinci in his
drawings.[3] The earliest rolling mills in crude form but the same basic principles were
found in Middle East and South Asia as early as 600 BCE. Earliest rolling mills
were slitting mills, which were introduced from what is now Belgium to England in 1590.
These passed flat bars between rolls to form a plate of iron, which was then passed

100
between grooved rolls (slitters) to produce rods of iron.[4] The first experiments at rolling
iron for tinplate took place about 1670. In 1697, Major John Hanbury erected a mill
at Pontypool to roll 'Pontypool plates'—blackplate.[citation needed] Later this began to be
rerolled and tinned to make tinplate.[citation needed] The earlier production of plate iron in
Europe had been in forges, not rolling mills.[citation needed]
The slitting mill was adapted to producing hoops (for barrels) and iron with a half-round or
other sections by means that were the subject of two patents of c. 1679.[citation needed],
Some of the earliest literature on rolling mills can be traced back to Christopher Polhem in
1761 in PatriotistaTestamente, where he mentions rolling mills for both plate and bar
iron.[5] He also explains how rolling mills can save on time and labor because a rolling mill
can produce 10 to 20 or more bars at the same time.
A patent was granted to Thomas Blockley of England in 1759 for the polishing and rolling
of metals. Another patent was granted in 1766 to Richard Ford of England for the first
tandem mill.[6] A tandem mill is one in which the metal is rolled in successive stands;
Ford's tandem mill was for hot rolling of wire rods. [citation needed]

Other metals

Rolling mills for lead seem to have existed by the late 17th century. Copper and brass were
also rolled by the late 18th century.

Modern rolling

Properzi roller, MuseoNazionaledellaScienza e dellaTecnologia "Leonardo da Vinci",

Milan
Modern rolling practice can be attributed to the pioneering efforts of Henry Cort of Funtley
Iron Mills, near Fareham, England. In 1783, a patent was issued to Henry Cort for his use
of grooved rolls for rolling iron bars.[7] With this new design, mills were able to produce 15
times more output per day than with a hammer.[8] Although Cort was not the first to use
grooved rolls, he was the first to combine the use of many of the best features of various
iron making and shaping processes known at the time. Thus modern writers have called
him "father of modern rolling."
The first rail rolling mill was established by John Birkenshaw in 1820, where he produced
fish bellied wrought iron rails in lengths of 15 to 18 feet.[8] With the advancement of
technology in rolling mills, the size of rolling mills grew rapidly along with the size of the
products being rolled. One example of this was at The Great Exhibition in 1851, where a
plate 20 feet long, 3 ½ feet wide, and 7/16 of an inch thick, and weighing 1,125 pounds,
was exhibited by the Consett Iron Company.[8] Further evolution of the rolling mill came
with the introduction of three-high mills in 1853 used for rolling heavy sections.[citation needed]

Hot and cold rolling

101
Hot rolling

A coil of hot-rolled steel

See also: Hot working
Hot rolling is a metalworking process that occurs above the recrystallization temperature
of the material. After the grains deform during processing, they recrystallize, which
maintains an equiaxed microstructure and prevents the metal from work hardening. The
starting material is usually large pieces of metal, like semi-finished casting products, such
as slabs, blooms, and billets. If these products came from a continuous casting operation
the products are usually fed directly into the rolling mills at the proper temperature. In
smaller operations, the material starts at room temperature and must be heated. This is
done in a gas- or oil-fired soaking pit for larger work pieces; for smaller work
pieces, induction heating is used. As the material is worked, the temperature must be
monitored to make sure it remains above the recrystallization temperature. To maintain
a safety factor a finishing temperature is defined above the recrystallization temperature;
this is usually 50 to 100 °C (90 to 180 °F) above the recrystallization temperature. If the
temperature does drop below this temperature the material must be re-heated before more
hot rolling.[9]

Soaking pits used to heat steel ingots before rolling.

Hot-rolled metals generally have little directionality in their mechanical properties and
deformation induced residual stresses. However, in certain instances non-metallic
inclusions will impart some directionality and work pieces less than 20 mm (0.79 in) thick
often have some directional properties. Also, non-uniform cooling will induce a lot of
residual stresses, which usually occurs in shapes that have a non-uniform cross-section,
such as I-beams. While the finished product is of good quality, the surface is covered
in mill scale, which is an oxide that forms at high temperatures. It is usually removed
via pickling or the smooth clean surface (SCS) process, which reveals a smooth
surface.[10] Dimensional tolerances are usually 2 to 5% of the overall dimension.[11]

102
Hot-rolled mild steel seems to have a wider tolerance for amount of included carbon than
does cold-rolled steel, and is, therefore, more difficult for a blacksmith to use. Also for
similar metals, hot-rolled products seem to be less costly than cold-rolled ones.[12]
Hot rolling is used mainly to produce sheet metal or simple cross-sections, such as rail
tracks. Other typical uses for hot-rolled metal [13]:

 Truck frames
 Automotive clutch plates, wheels and wheel rims
 Pipes and tubes
 Water heaters
 Agricultural equipment
 Strappings
 Stampings
 Compressor shells
 Metal buildings
 Railroad hopper cars and railcar components
 Doors and shelving
 Discs
 Guard rails for streets and highways
Shape rolling design
Rolling mills are often divided into roughing, intermediate and finishing rolling cages.
During shape rolling, an initial billet (round or square) with edge of diameter typically
ranging between 100–140 mm is continuously deformed to produce a certain finished
product with smaller cross section dimension and geometry. Different sequences can be
adopted to produce a certain final product starting from a given billet. However, since each
rolling mill is significantly expensive (up to 2 million euros), a typical requirement is to
contract the number or rolling passes. Different approaches have been achieved including
empirical knowledge, employment of numerical models, and Artificial Intelligence
techniques. Lambiase et al.[14][15] validated a finite element model (FE) for predicting the
final shape of a rolled bar in round-flat pass. one of the major concern when designing
rolling mills is to reduce the number of passes; a possible solution to such requirement is
represented by the slit pass also called split pass which divided an incoming bar in two or
more subpart thus virtually increasing the cross section reduction ratio per pass as reported
by Lambiase.[16] Another solution for reducing the number of passes in the rolling mills is
the employment of automated systems for Roll Pass Design as that proposed by Lambiase
and Langella.[17] subsequently, Lambiase further developed an Automated System based
on Artificial Intelligence and particularly an integrated system including an inferential
engine based on Genetic Algorithms a knowledge database based on an Artificial Neural
Network trained by a parametric Finite element model and to optimize and automatically
design rolling mills.[18]
Cold rolling
See also: Cold-formed steel
Cold rolling occurs with the metal below its recrystallization temperature (usually at room
temperature), which increases the strength via strain hardening up to 20%. It also improves
the surface finish and holds tighter tolerances. Commonly cold-rolled products include
sheets, strips, bars, and rods; these products are usually smaller than the same products that
are hot rolled. Because of the smaller size of the workpieces and their greater strength, as
compared to hot rolled stock, four-high or cluster mills are used.[2] Cold rolling cannot
reduce the thickness of a workpiece as much as hot rolling in a single pass.
Cold-rolled sheets and strips come in various conditions: full-hard, half-hard, quarter-
hard, and skin-rolled. Full-hard rolling reduces the thickness by 50%, while the others

103
involve less of a reduction. Cold rolled steel is then annealed to induce ductility in the cold
rolled steel which is simply known as a Cold Rolled and Close Annealed. Skin-rolling, also
known as a skin-pass, involves the least amount of reduction: 0.5–1%. It is used to produce
a smooth surface, a uniform thickness, and reduce the yield point phenomenon (by
preventing Lüders bands from forming in later processing). It locks dislocations at the
surface and thereby reduces the possibility of formation of Lüders bands. To avoid the
formation of Lüders bands it is necessary to create substantial density of unpinned
dislocations in ferrite matrix. It is also used to break up the spangles in galvanized steel.
Skin-rolled stock is usually used in subsequent cold-working processes where good
ductility is required.
Other shapes can be cold-rolled if the cross-section is relatively uniform and the transverse
dimension is relatively small. Cold rolling shapes requires a series of shaping operations,
usually along the lines of sizing, breakdown, roughing, semi-roughing, semi-finishing, and
finishing.
If processed by a blacksmith, the smoother, more consistent, and lower levels of carbon
encapsulated in the steel makes it easier to process, but at the cost of being more
expensive.[19]
Typical uses for cold-rolled steel include metal furniture, desks, filing cabinets, tables,
chairs, motorcycle exhaust pipes, computer cabinets and hardware, home appliances and
components, shelving, lighting fixtures, hinges, tubing, steel drums, lawn mowers,
electronic cabinetry, water heaters, metal containers, fan blades, frying pans, wall and
ceiling mount kits, and a variety of construction-related products.[20]

Processes
Roll bending

Roll bending
Main article: Roll bender
Roll bending produces a cylindrical shaped product from plate or steel metals .[21]
Roll forming

104
Roll forming
Main article: Roll forming
Roll forming, roll bending or plate rolling is a continuous bending operation in which a
long strip of metal (typically coiled steel) is passed through consecutive sets of rolls, or
stands, each performing only an incremental part of the bend, until the desired cross-
section profile is obtained. Roll forming is ideal for producing parts with long lengths or in
large quantities. There are 3 main processes: 4 rollers, 3 rollers and 2 rollers, each of which
has as different advantages according to the desired specifications of the output plate.
Flat rolling
Flat rolling is the most basic form of rolling with the starting and ending material having a
rectangular cross-section. The material is fed in between two rollers, called working rolls
that rotate in opposite directions. The gap between the two rolls is less than the thickness
of the starting material, which causes it to deform. The decrease in material thickness
causes the material to elongate. The friction at the interface between the material and the
rolls causes the material to be pushed through. The amount of deformation possible in a
single pass is limited by the friction between the rolls; if the change in thickness is too
great the rolls just slip over the material and do not draw it in.[1] The final product is either
sheet or plate, with the former being less than 6 mm (0.24 in) thick and the latter greater
than; however, heavy plates tend to be formed using a press, which is termed forging,
rather than rolling.[citation needed]
Often the rolls are heated to assist in the workability of the metal. Lubrication is often used
to keep the work piece from sticking to the rolls.[citation needed] To fine-tune the process, the
speed of the rolls and the temperature of the rollers are adjusted.[22]
h is sheet metal with a thickness less than 200 μm (0.0079 in).[citation needed] The rolling is
done in a cluster mill because the small thickness requires a small diameter rolls.[9] To
reduce the need for small rolls pack rolling is used, which rolls multiple sheets together to
increase the effective starting thickness. As the foil sheets come through the rollers, they
are trimmed and slitted with circular or razor-like knives. Trimming refers to the edges of
the foil, while slitting involves cutting it into several sheets. [22] Aluminum foil is the most
commonly produced product via pack rolling. This is evident from the two different
surface finishes; the shiny side is on the roll side and the dull side is against the other sheet
of foil.[23]
Ring rolling

A schematic of ring rolling

Ring rolling is a specialized type of hot rolling that increases the diameter of a ring. The
starting material is a thick-walled ring. This work piece is placed between two rolls, an
inner idler roll and a driven roll, which presses the ring from the outside. As the rolling
occurs the wall thickness decreases as the diameter increases. The rolls may be shaped to
form various cross-sectional shapes. The resulting grain structure is circumferential, which
gives better mechanical properties. Diameters can be as large as 8 m (26 ft) and face
heights as tall as 2 m (79 in). Common applications include railway
tyres, bearings, gears, rockets, turbines, airplanes, pipes, and pressure vessels.[10]

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Structural shape rolling

Cross-sections of continuously rolled structural shapes, showing the change induced by

each rolling mill.
Main article: Structural shape rolling
Controlled rolling
Controlled rolling is a type of thermomechanical processing which integrates controlled
deformation and heat treating. The heat which brings the work piece above the
recrystallization temperature is also used to perform the heat treatments so that any
subsequent heat treating is unnecessary. Types of heat treatments include the production of
a fine grain structure; controlling the nature, size, and distribution of various
transformation products (such as ferrite, austenite, pearlite, bainite,and marten site in
steel); inducing precipitation hardening; and, controlling the toughness. In order to achieve
the entire process must be closely monitored and controlled. Common variables in
controlled rolling include the starting material composition and structure, deformation
levels, temperatures at various stages, and cool-down conditions. The benefits of
controlled rolling include better mechanical properties and energy savings.
Forge rolling
Forge rolling is a longitudinal rolling process to reduce the cross-sectional area of heated
bars or billets by leading them between two contrary rotating roll segments. The process is
mainly used to provide optimized material distribution for subsequent die forging
processes. Owing to this a better material utilization, lower process forces and better
surface quality of parts can be achieved in die forging processes.
Basically any forgeable metal can also be forge-rolled. Forge rolling is mainly used to
preform long-scaled billets through targeted mass distribution for parts such as crankshafts,
connection rods, steering knuckles and vehicle axles. Narrowest manufacturing tolerances
can only partially be achieved by forge rolling. This is the main reason why forge rolling is
rarely used for finishing, but mainly for preforming.
Characteristics of forge rolling:

 high productivity and high material utilization

 good surface quality of forge-rolled workpieces
 extended tool life-time
 small tools and low tool costs
 improved mechanical properties due to optimized grain flow compared to exclusively
die forged work pieces

Mills
For the factory, see steel mill.
A rolling mill, also known as a reduction mill or mill, has a common construction
independent of the specific type of rolling being performed:

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Rolling mills

Rolling mill for cold rolling metal sheet like this piece of brass sheet

 Work rolls
 Backup rolls - are intended to provide rigid support required by the working rolls to
prevent bending under the rolling load
 Rolling balance system - to ensure that the upper work and back up rolls are
maintained in proper position relative to lower rolls
 Roll changing devices - use of an overhead crane and a unit designed to attach to the
neck of the roll to be removed from or inserted into the mill.
 Mill protection devices - to ensure that forces applied to the backup roll chocks are not
of such a magnitude to fracture the roll necks or damage the mill housing
 Roll cooling and lubrication systems
 Pinions - gears to divide power between the two spindles, rotating them at the same
speed but in different directions
 Gearing - to establish desired rolling speed
 Drive motors - rolling narrow foil product to thousands of horsepower
 Electrical controls - constant and variable voltages applied to the motors
 Coilers and uncoilers - to unroll and roll up coils of metal
Slabs are the feed material for hot strip mills or plate mills and blooms are rolled to billets
in a billet mill or large sections in a structural mill. The output from a strip mill is coiled
and, subsequently, used as the feed for a cold rolling mill or used directly by fabricators.
Billets, for re-rolling, are subsequently rolled in either a merchant, bar or rod mill.
Merchant or bar mills produce a variety of shaped products such as angles, channels,
beams, rounds (long or coiled) and hexagons.

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Configurations

Various rolling configurations. Key: A. 2-high B. 3-high C. 4-high D. 6-high E. 12-high

cluster & F. 20-high Sendzimir Mill cluster
Mills are designed in different types of configurations, with the most basic being a two-
high non-reversing, which means there are two rolls that only turn in one direction.
The two-high reversing mill has rolls that can rotate in both directions, but the
disadvantage is that the rolls must be stopped, reversed, and then brought back up to
rolling speed between each pass. To resolve this, the three-high mill was invented, which
uses three rolls that rotate in one direction; the metal is fed through two of the rolls and
then returned through the other pair. The disadvantage to this system is the workpiece must
be lifted and lowered using an elevator. All of these mills are usually used for primary
rolling and the roll diameters range from 60 to 140 cm (24 to 55 in).
To minimize the roll diameter a four-high or cluster mill is used. A small roll diameter is
advantageous because less roll is in contact with the material, which results in a lower
force and power requirement. The problem with a small roll is a reduction of stiffness,
which is overcome using backup rolls. These backup rolls are larger and contact the back
side of the smaller rolls. A four-high mill has four rolls, two small and two large. A cluster
mill has more than 4 rolls, usually in three tiers. These types of mills are commonly used to
hot roll wide plates, most cold rolling applications, and to roll foils.
Historically mills were classified by the product produced:

 Blooming, cogging and slabbing mills, being the preparatory mills to rolling
finished rails, shapes or plates, respectively. If reversing, they are from 34 to 48 inches
in diameter, and if three-high, from 28 to 42 inches in diameter.
 Billet mills, three-high, rolls from 24 to 32 inches in diameter, used for the further
reduction of blooms down to 1.5x1.5-inch billets, being the nub preparatory mills for
the bar and rod
 Beam mills, three-high, rolls from 28 to 36 inches in diameter, for the production of
heavy beams and channels 12 inches and over.
 Rail mills with rolls from 26 to 40 inches in diameter.
 Shape mills with rolls from 20 to 26 inches in diameter, for smaller sizes of beams and
channels and other structural shapes.
 Merchant bar mills with rolls from 16 to 20 inches in diameter.
 Small merchant bar mills with finishing rolls from 8 to 16 inches in diameter,
generally arranged with a larger size roughing stand.
 Rod and wire mills with finishing rolls from 8 to 12 inches in diameter, always
arranged with larger size roughing stands.
 Hoop and cotton tie mills, similar to small merchant bar mills.

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 Armour plate mills with rolls from 44 to 50 inches in diameter and 140 to 180-inch
body.
 Plate mills with rolls from 28 to 44 inches in diameter.
 Sheet mills with rolls from 20 to 32 inches in diameter.
 Universal mills for the production of square-edged or so-called universal plates and
various wide flanged shapes by a system of vertical and horizontal rolls.
Tandem mill
A tandem mill is a special type of modern rolling mill where rolling is done in one pass. In
a traditional rolling mill rolling is done in several passes, but in tandem mill there are
several stands (>=2 stands) and reductions take place successively. The number of stands
ranges from 2 to 18. Tandem mills can be either of hot or cold rolling mill types.

Defects
In hot rolling, if the temperature of the workpiece is not uniform the flow of the material
will occur more in the warmer parts and less in the cooler. If the temperature difference is
great enough cracking and tearing can occur.
Flatness and shape
In a flat metal workpiece, the flatness is a descriptive attribute characterizing the extent of
the geometric deviation from a reference plane. The deviation from complete flatness is the
direct result of the workpiece relaxation after hot or cold rolling, due to the internal stress
pattern caused by the non-uniform transversal compressive action of the rolls and the
uneven geometrical properties of the entry material. The transverse distribution of
differential strain/elongation-induced stress with respect to the material's average applied
stress is commonly referenced to as shape. Due to the strict relationship between shape and
flatness, these terms can be used in an interchangeable manner. In the case of metal strips
and sheets, the flatness reflects the differential fiber elongation across the width of the
workpiece. This property must be subject to an accurate feedback-based control in order to
guarantee the machinability of the metal sheets in the final transformation processes. Some
technological details about the feedback control of flatness are given in.
Profile
Profile is made up of the measurements of crown and wedge. Crown is the thickness in the
center as compared to the average thickness at the edges of the workpiece. Wedge is a
measure of the thickness at one edge as opposed to the other edge. Both may be expressed
as absolute measurements or as relative measurements. For instance, one could have 2 mil
of crown (the center of the workpiece is 2 mil thicker than the edges), or one could have
2% crown (the center of the workpiece is 2% thicker than the edges).
It is typically desirable to have some crown in the workpiece as this will cause the
workpiece to tend to pull to the center of the mill, and thus will run with higher stability.

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Flatness

Roll deflection
Maintaining a uniform gap between the rolls is difficult because the rolls deflect under the
load required to deform the workpiece. The deflection causes the workpiece to be thinner
on the edges and thicker in the middle. This can be overcome by using a crowned roller
(parabolic crown), however the crowned roller will only compensate for one set of
conditions, specifically the material, temperature, and amount of deformation.[11]
Other methods of compensating for roll deformation include continual varying crown
(CVC), pair cross rolling, and work roll bending. CVC was developed by SMS-Siemag
AG and involves grinding a third order polynomial curve into the work rolls and then
shifting the work rolls laterally, equally, and opposite to each other. The effect is that the
rolls will have a gap between them that is parabolic in shape, and will vary with lateral
shift, thus allowing for control of the crown of the rolls dynamically. Pair cross rolling
involves using either flat or parabolically crowned rolls, but shifting the ends at an angle so
that the gap between the edges of the rolls will increase or decrease, thus allowing for
dynamic crown control. Work roll bending involves using hydraulic cylinders at the ends
of the rolls to counteract roll deflection.
Another way to overcome deflection issues is by decreasing the load on the rolls, which
can be done by applying a longitudinal force; this is essentially drawing. Other method of
decreasing roll deflection include increasing the elastic modulus of the roll material and
adding back-up supports to the rolls.[11]
The different classifications for flatness defects are:

 Symmetrical edge wave - the edges on both sides of the work piece are "wavy" due to
the material at the edges being longer than the material in the center.
 Asymmetrical edge wave - one edge is "wavy" due to the material at one side being
longer than the other side.
 Center buckle - The center of the strip is "wavy" due to the strip in the center being
longer than the strip at the edges.
 Quarter buckle - This is a rare defect where the fibers are elongated in the quarter
regions (the portion of the strip between the center and the edge). This is normally
attributed to using excessive roll bending force since the bending force may not
compensate for the roll deflection across the entire length of the roll.

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It is important to note that one could have a flatness defect even with the workpiece having
the same thickness across the width. Also, one could have fairly high crown or wedge, but
still produce material that is flat. In order to produce flat material, the material must be
reduced by the same percentage across the width. This is important because mass flow of
the material must be preserved, and the more a material is reduced, the more it is
elongated. If a material is elongated in the same manner across the width, then the flatness
coming into the mill will be preserved at the exit of the mill.
Draught
The difference between the thickness of initial and rolled metal piece is called Draught.
Thus it is initial thickness and is final thickness, then the draught is given by the
maximum draught that can be achieved via rollers of radius with coefficient of static
friction between the roller and the metal surface is given by

This is the case when the frictional force on the metal from inlet contact matches the
negative force from the exit contact.
Surface defect types
There are six types of surface defects: [30]
Lap
This type of defect occurs when a corner or fin is folded over and rolled but not
welded into the metal.[31] They appear as seams across the surface of the metal.
Mill-shearing
These defects occur as a feather-like lap.
Rolled-in scale
This occurs when mill scale is rolled into metal.
Scabs
These are long patches of loose metal that have been rolled into the surface of the
metal.
Seams
They are open, broken lines that run along the length of the metal and caused by
the presence of scale as well as due to pass roughness of Roughing mill.
Slivers
Prominent surface ruptures.
Surface defect remediation
Many surface defects can be scarfed off the surface of semi-finished rolled products
before further rolling. Methods of scarfing have included hand-chipping with
chisels (18th and 19th centuries); powered chipping and grinding with air chisels
and grinders; burning with an oxy-fuel torch, whose gas pressure blows away the
metal or slag melted by the flame;[32] and laser scarfing.
Steel manufacturing methods have evolved dramatically since the processes of the
industrial revolution began in the mid 19th century. However modern methods are
still based on the Bessemer process which was practised over 150 years ago. This
was a way to introduce oxygen into molten iron in order to reduce the amount of
carbon contained within.

Modern-day steel production makes use of both traditional raw materials (iron)
and recycled materials to turn them into steel. With this in mind, here are the 6
steps to modern steel production explained.

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Step 1 – The iron making process
As iron is the main component of steel it firstly needs to be made. Iron ore, lime, and coke
are placed into a blast furnace and melted. The resulting liquid known as molten iron is
then formed. As molten iron still contains around 4% – 4.5% impurities such as carbon
which in turn make the metal brittle, they need to be eradicated. Step 2 does exactly this.

Step 2 – Primary steel making

There are two main methods for making steel and these are Basic Oxygen Steel making
(BOS) and Electric Ark Furnaces (EAF). BOS methods for example involve adding scrap
(recycled) steel to the molten iron when in the furnace. Oxygen is then forced through the
liquid (the Bessemer process) to cut the impurities in the molten metal down to 0.5% -
1.5%.

Alternatively with the EAF method, recycled steel is fed into an electrical ark furnace
along with the molten iron which is then heated to around 1650 degrees Celsius in order to
convert it into high-grade steel.

Step 3 – Secondary steel making

Next the newly formed molten steel needs to be adjusted to make the perfect steel
composition. This is done by either manipulating the temperature and/or removing certain
elements. This may include processes such as degassing, stirring, ladle injection, or argon
bubbling

Step 4 – casting
Now we have the bones of our steel the next step is to pour it into cooled moulds. This
causes the metal to cool quickly. Once cooled the metal is then cut into desired lengths
depending upon the application eg, slabs for plates, blooms for sections such as beams, and
billets for longer products such as wiring or thin pipes.

Step 5 – First forming

Also known as primary forming, the initial shapes of slabs, blooms, and billets are formed
into their various shapes usually by hot rolling. Products that are hot rolled are then
divided into flat products, long products, seamless tubes, and specialty products for one
last stage of processing.

Step 6 – The manufacturing, fabrication and finishing process

Finally a variety of secondary forming techniques including shaping, machining, jointing
and coating give the products their tell-tale shapes and properties.

So there you have it, the entire steel making process in 6 steps! If you‘re in need of a
particular metal part then why not contact Metro Steel. We have the skills and the
experience to construct just about anything you want. Contact us on 07 3204 1000 for a
competitive quote. Alternatively if you‘re in the Deception Bay area of Brisbane, why not
pop into our Kabi Circuit premises and talk to us first hand.

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  Basic production processes in plastic industry

Plastics are the most common materials for producing end-use parts and products, for
everything from consumer products to medical devices. Plastics are a versatile category of
materials, with thousands of polymer options, each with their own specific mechanical
properties.

Plastic manufacturing processes have been developed to cover a wide range of applications
and part geometries. For any designer and engineer working in product development, it is
critical to be familiar with the manufacturing options available today and the new
developments that signal how parts will be made tomorrow.

This guide provides an overview of the most common manufacturing processes for
producing plastic parts and guidelines to help you select the best option for your
application.

How to Choose the Right Plastic Manufacturing Process

Consider the following factors when selecting a manufacturing process for your product:

Form: Do your parts have complex internal features or tight tolerance requirements?
Depending on the geometry of a design, manufacturing options may be limited, or they
may require significant design for manufacturing (DFM) optimization to make them
economical to produce.

Volume/cost: What‘s the total or the annual volume of parts you‘re planning to
manufacture? Some manufacturing processes have high front costs for tooling and setup,
but produce parts that are inexpensive on a per-part basis. In contrast, low volume
processes have low startup costs, but due to slower cycle times, less automation, and
manual labor, cost per part remains constant or decreases only marginally when volume
increases.

Lead time: How quickly do you need parts produced? Some processes create first parts
within 24 hours, while tooling and setup for certain high volume production processes
takes months.

Material: What stresses and strains will your product need to stand up to? The optimal
material for a given application is determined by a number of factors. Cost must be
balanced against functional and aesthetic requirements. Consider the ideal characteristics
for your specific application and contrast them with the available choices in a given
manufacturing processes.

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Types of Plastics

Plastics come in thousands of varieties with different base chemistries, derivatives, and
additives that are formulated to cover a wide range of functional and aesthetic properties.
To simplify the process of finding the material best suited for a given part or product, let‘s
look first at the two main categories of plastic: thermoplastics and thermosets.

Thermoplastics

Thermoplastics are the most commonly used type of plastic. The main feature that sets
them apart from thermosets is their ability to go through numerous melt and solidification
cycles without significant degradation. Thermoplastics are usually supplied in the form of
small pellets or sheets that are heated and formed into the desired shape using various
manufacturing processes. The process is completely reversible, as no chemical bonding
takes place, which makes recycling or melting and reusing thermoplastics feasible.

Common materials:

 Acrylic (PMMA)
 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
 Polyamide (PA)
 Polylactic acid (PLA)
 Polycarbonate (PC)
 Polyether ether ketone (PEEK)
 Polyethylene (PE)
 Polypropylene (PP)
 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Thermosetting Plastics

In contrast with thermoplastics, thermosetting plastics (also referred to as thermosets)

remain in a permanent solid state after curing. Polymers in thermosetting materials cross-
link during a curing process that is induced by heat, light, or suitable radiation. This curing
process forms an irreversible chemical bond. Thermosetting plastics decompose when
heated rather than melting, and will not reform upon cooling. Recycling thermosets or
returning the material back into its base ingredients is not possible.

Common materials:

 Cyanate ester
 Epoxy
 Polyester
 Polyurethane
 Silicone
 Vulcanized rubber

Types of Manufacturing Processes

 3D Printing
 CNC Machining
 Polymer Casting
 Rotational Molding
 Vacuum Forming
 Injection Molding

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  Extrusion
 Blow Molding

3D Printing
3D printers create three-dimensional parts directly from CAD models by building material
layer by layer until a complete physical part is formed.
[Link]

What is thermo plastic used for?

They are useful for a variety of applications, including consumer goods, machine parts,
medical equipment and packaging and storage materials. Thermoplastic is the property of
polymers in synthetic materials with which they becomes pliable and moldable on higher
temperature and solidify on cooling –

WHY ARE THERMOSET PLASTICS USED?

Thermoset plastics offer enhanced:

 Chemical resistance
 Heat resistance
 Structural integrity

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Thermosetting composites are created on a continuing basis to keep pace with the growing
amount of complicated industrial applications. Thermoset plastic composites meet the
material specifications of a huge variety of other production materials, at a much lower
cost. Thermoset injection molding allows for a wide assortment of large and small parts.
Huge volume requirements can be reached easily, and high-quality products can be
delivered consistently through continuous batch processes. More importantly, complex,
detailed geometric shapes that cannot be produced with metals or thermoplastics can be
wholly produced in the mold itself. In this regard, thermosets offer an attractive alternative
to metals and thermoplastics due to its exceptional physical properties and surface
appearance, with little to no shrinkage when removed from the mold.

Elastomer materials are those materials that are made of polymers that are joined by
chemical bonds, acquiring a final slightly cross-linked structure.
An elastomer we can assimilate to the following example,
imagine that on a table we have a set of strings mixed, each of
these strings it´s represent a polymer, we introduce a
relatively small effort if we want to separate the strings each
other‘s, now began to make knots between each of the strings,
we see that as more knots that we made more ordered and
rigid becomes all the strings, the knots of the strings is
representing the chemical bonds, with a certain degree knots,
or chemical bonds, more strongly stress need to apply to the
strings in order to separate them, also we can observed that when we stress the string
the length and the size of the strings increase and when we left to apply the stress the
strings return to the initial length.

The main characteristic of elastomer materials is the high elongation and flexibility or
elasticity of these materials, against its breaking or cracking.
Depending on the distribution and degree of the chemical bonds of the polymers,
elastomeric materials can have properties or characteristics similar to thermosets or
thermoplastics, so elastomeric materials can be classified into:
 Thermoset Elastomers - are those elastomer materials which do not melt when heated.
 Thermoplastic Elastomers - are those elastomers which melt when heated.
Properties of elastomer materials:
 Cannot melt, before melting they pass into a gaseous state
 Swell in the presence of certain solvents
 Are generally insoluble.
 Are flexible and elastic.
 Lower creep resistance than the thermoplastic materials
Examples and applications of elastomer plastic materials:

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 Natural rubber - material used in the manufacture of gaskets, shoe heels...
 Polyurethanes - Polyurethanes are used in the textile industry for the manufacture of
elastic clothing such as lycra, also used as foam, wheels, etc ...
 Polybutadiene - elastomer material used on the wheels or tires of vehicles, given the
extraordinary wear resistance.
 Neoprene - Material used primarily in the manufacture of wetsuits is also used as wire
insulation, industrial belts, etc ...
 Silicone - Material used in a wide range of materials and areas due their excellent
thermal and chemical resistance, silicones are used in the manufacture of pacifiers,
medical prostheses, lubricants, mold, etc ...
Examples of elastomers adhesives:
 Polyurethane adhesive 2 components.
 Polyurethane adhesive by curing 1 component moisture.
 Adhesives based on silicones
 Adhesives based on modified saline
Now that you know the elastomers, did you know that all the tires of any vehicle are
made with elastomer materials?

The Plastic Manufacturing Process

Types of Molding Processes

Plastic Injection Molding Process

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Injection molding is one of the main methods by which parts are manufactured from
plastic. The first step in the injection molding process is to feed plastic pellets into the
hopper, which then feeds the pellets into the barrel. The barrel is heated and contains a
reciprocating screw or a ram injector. A reciprocating screw is typically found in
machines that produce smaller parts. The reciprocating screw crushes the pellets, making
it easier for the plastic to be liquefied. Toward the front of the barrel, the reciprocating
screw propels the liquefied plastic forward, thereby injecting the plastic through a nozzle
and into the empty mold. Unlike the barrel, the mold is kept cool to harden the plastic
into the correct shape. The mold plates are held closed by a large plate (referred to as a
movable platen). The movable platen is attached to a hydraulic piston, which puts
pressure on the mold. Clamping the mold shut prevents plastic from leaking out, which
would create deformities in the finished pieces.

Plastic Extrusion Molding Process

Extrusion molding is another method of manufacturing plastic components. Extrusion

molding is very similar to injection molding and is used to make pipes, tubes, straws,
hoses and other hollow pieces. Plastic resin is fed into a barrel where it is liquefied. A
rotating screw propels the liquefied plastic into a mold, which contains a tube-shaped
orifice. The size and shape of the tube determines the size and shape of the plastic piece.
The liquefied plastic then cools and is fed through an extruder, which flattens the plastic
and forms the piece into its final shape.

Issues That Arise in the Plastic Manufacturing Process

A number of complications can arise during the plastic manufacturing process, including
burned parts, deformities, surface imperfections and brittle parts. Parts become burned
when the molds are not kept cool or if the melting temperature in the barrel is too high.
Additionally, if the reciprocating screw becomes jammed or is not rotating fast enough,
liquefied resin will remain in the barrel too long and become scorched. Surface
imperfections and deformities occur when the surface temperature of the mold is uneven,
if the molds are not clamped tightly enough or if the melting temperature is too high.
Brittle pieces are formed when not enough liquefied resin is injected into the mold or if

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the plastic hardens before the mold can be filled. Regular testing and calibration of
injection and extrusion molding machines is critical to ensure that the process runs
smoothly.

WHAT IS THE BLOW MOLDING PROCESS IN THE PLASTIC INDUSTRY?

Blow molding is a type of manufacturing and production process that allows for the
forming of hollow plastic parts. Air pressure is traditionally used to inflate a soft plastic
into the mold cavity. While this technology originally derived from the glass industry, the
blow molding process in the plastic sector competes in the recyclable and disposable
market.
There are three main types of blow molding techniques: extrusion, injection stretch, and
injection blow molding. The blow molding process can construct jars and containers such
as PETE and PET containers and jars for packaging.
Blow molding is a critical industrial process for manufacturing any type of one-piece
hollow plastic parts such as plastic piping, water cans, containers and bottles.

WHAT IS PET AND PETE?

PET is plastics that you come in contact with throughout your everyday life. PET or PETE,
known as Polyethylene Terephthalate, is best known as the clear plastic used for soda
bottle and water containers. As a raw material it is globally recognized as a flexible,
lightweight, strong, non-toxic, and safe material that is 100% recyclable. In fact, PET is the
most widely accepted recycled plastic available in the entire world. Almost all US
municipal, recycling programs accept PET type packaging. Checking the backs or bottom
of containers for the resin identification code can easily identify PET type plastics. This
symbol can be recognized by the #1 surrounded with ―chasing arrows‖.

Recycled PET, along with virgin PET, can be used for soda and water bottles, cake
packaging, cosmetic clam shell packaging for toys, razors, cosmetics and other retail items.
It can also be found in containers for salad dressing, shampoo, peanut butter, sleeping
bags, clothing, carpeting, and so much more. PET is so prevalent in our modern day
society that it‘s important to recycle it for reuse when and wherever possible. Under
the recycle code 1, PET recycling rates are growing faster than ever.
PET is polyester product that is generally crafted with the injection blow molding process
into clear containers. While it is possible to use the blow molding extrusion method in PET
plastics, it is less common because the resin requires a drying period that is extensive.

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HOW DOES THE BLOW MOLDING PROCESS WORK?
The plastic blow molding manufacturing process is made up of two parts. The first part of
this process begins with the creation of Parisons, or starting tubes of molten plastic. These
Parisons are the base for extrusion blowing, regardless of the type of container or plastic
part that is being manufactured. When the Parisons have been fabricated they are ready for
the second part of the process – blow molding into the desired shape.
Note: If we were talking about injection or injection stretch blow molding, the first step of
the blow molding process would be called Preform instead of Parison.

1. EXTRUSION BLOW MOLDING (EBM)

 Parison Extrusion
 Blowing
 Cooling
 Ejection
As explained above, the extrusion blow molding manufacturing process begins with a
parison. This process begins with a hollow tube (the parison) which hot air is blown into.
This step inflates the tub into the hollow part, taking the shape of the mold cavity. Parts in
the extrusion blow-molding sector can contain jars, containers, and plastic bottles. When
the plastic has cooled, the mold is opened and the blow-molded piece is ejected. It is then
replaced by a new parison for the process to be repeated.

2. INJECT BLOW MOLDING (IBM)

 Injection
 Blowing
 Ejection

The injection blow molding process begins with the molding of a polymer onto a core pin
in a heated cavity. The cavity mold then forms the outer shape based off of the core rod,
which shaped the inside of the preform. This preform is generally shaped as a bottle or jar
neck with larger amounts of polymer attached to it. This polymer is what will eventually
form into the jar body. When the preform mold is opened, the core rod brings the piece to
the blow station. The core rod then opens up and compresses air into the preform. At the
final equipment station, the part is blown, cooled, and ejected.

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This manufacturing technique is generally used for smaller containers and hollow objects
in larger quantities. However, this technique is the least commonly used by manufactures
of the three techniques discussed here today.

3. INJECTION STRETCH BLOW MOLDING

 Injection
 Stretching
 Blowing
 Discharge
This final blow molding process is widely used by PET material throughout the
manufacturing process of hollowed plastic containers.
Similar to the blow molding injection technique, molten polymer flows on a hot runner
block into the injection cavity to make the Preform. As explained in the injection process,
this core pin is what produces the inner diameter, while the injection cavity works to shape
the outside of the preform. Following the injection molding process, the piece is held by its
neck and rotated 90 degrees. When the preform reaches the right temperature, it is air
infused (blown), and stretched into its final shape.
In the blow-mold area, the molds close and the stretch-rod works stretches the part using
two different levels of air pressure. When the part is cool enough it gets discharged. This
method produces containers for all different types of consumer related industries.

IBM AND EMB: WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE?

The primary difference between injection blow molding and extrusion blow molding is
that extrusion involves the squeezing of plastic through the mold. This mold is actually
called a die (in blow molding terms). This can be thought of like pasta dough extruding
from a machine. During this process, you can adjust the shape, length, and thickness of the
pasta. In other words, extrusion molding involves squeezing plastic into a die in order to
make the molded part, whereas injection blow molding pushes the plastic into a mold, then
ejects the part and inflates it with air once it has cooled.

WHY USE PET PLASTICS

As a whole, plastics make up 13% of municipal waste. However, it is estimated by the

EPA that only 1% of all municipal waste can be attributed to PET containers. This 1% may
seem small, but it is in fact a lost opportunity, to recycle and reuse those PET plastics for
new plastic packaging and clothes (that can further be recycled and reused again!). US
households, which use approximately 45 lbs of PET containers and plastic bottle per year
could make a serious impact by choosing to recycle over other waste methods.

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