INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKING

CORSSES OUTLINE:
1. Basic Computer Networking
2. INTRODUCTION TO WORLD WIDE WEB
3. BASIC NETWORKING CONCEPT AND THEIR APPLICATION
4. INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING SECURITY

1. BASIC COMPUTER NETWORKING

Introduction
The integral role of computer networking in the modern world can’t be overstated. As the
vital structure underpinning the Internet and our global communication infrastructure, it
enables rapid information exchange and resource sharing, irrespective of geographical
distance. This article delves into the core concepts of networking, shedding light on its diverse
types, the fundamental components, network protocols, and other integral aspects that
contribute to its functionality. Whenever two or more computers are linked together with a
view to share resources or exchange information, such linkage is called computer network.
1. 1 DEFINITION OF A NETWORK

A network is a collection of interconnected devices that can communicate with each other.
These devices include computers, servers, printers, and mobile devices.

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A computer network is interconnection of various computer system located at different places
with a medium and data communication devices for the purpose of data communication and
sharing resources.

These networks can range from a small network connecting devices within a home to vast
global networks like the Internet, connecting billions of devices worldwide. The intricacies of
these networks, their design, and their operation form the bedrock of our connected world.

Why do we network computers?

Most computers networked in order to derive the following benefits:

1. Resource sharing: Through computer network, programs, data and other resourcse are
shared by several users on network. This sharing if resources is independent on the physical
location of the users and resources. Users can access their data even they are at a geographical
distant location with the help of network.

2. High reliability of communication: Whenever there is a failure in the exchange of

information within a network, there could be other alternate sources where the same
information could be used. This is because information and other resources are not only held
by one computer within the network.

3. Cost effective: Since there is a sharing of resources within a network, that means for a
network that contains 10 computer units and the users requires a printer, the printing resources
can also be shared among them. Thus, one or two printers could be sufficient for use by 10 or
more users within a network. This ultimately cuts the cost of buying 10 or more printers.

4. Mode of communication among widely separated users : through computer network, two
users at different location on the globe can communicate easily. An example of this is
teleconferencing which allows people to communicate without the need for them to come
under one common room.

1.2 Types of Networks

Generally, computer networks can be classified based on geographical area covered, and can
be divided in to the following:

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1. Local Area Networks (LAN): A LAN connects computers within a limited
geographical area such as a home, office, or a group of adjacent buildings. For
instance, when you connect your laptop, Smartphone, and smart TV to the same Wi-Fi
at home, you are essentially connecting them to a LAN. A LAN, which can be wired
or wireless, provides a high-speed connection allowing devices to communicate and
share resources.

2. Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN): As the name suggests, MANs cover a larger
area than LANs but are confined within the limits of a city or metropolitan area. They
are often employed by Internet Service Providers (ISPs) to offer services to their
clients in the same city. A city-wide Wi-Fi network is a typical example of a MAN.

3. Wide Area Networks (WAN): A WAN spans a large geographical area, linking
networks across cities, countries, or even continents. The Internet itself is a perfect
embodiment of a WAN, connecting countless networks globally. WANs enable
businesses with multiple locations to communicate and share resources seamlessly.

4. Personal Area Networks (PAN): PANs cater to individual users within a small range,
typically a few meters around the user. For instance, the Bluetooth network connecting
your Smartphone, wireless headphones, and smart watch is a PAN.

5. Virtual Private Networks (VPN): A VPN is a technology that establishes a secure

network connection over a public network, such as the Internet. It allows users to
securely access a private network and share data remotely through public networks. It
does this by creating a virtual point-to-point connection using dedicated circuits or
tunnelling protocols.

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 Basic Components of a Network

1. Routers: Routers are pivotal devices that connect multiple networks and channel
network traffic efficiently between them. If you consider your home network, the
router acts as the linchpin connecting your home network (a LAN) to the vast expanse
of the Internet (a WAN).

2. Switches: Switches serve as connection points for devices on a network. They receive
incoming data packets and redistribute them to the correct destination based on the
packet’s MAC (Media Access Control) address — a unique identifier for network
interfaces.

3. Servers: Servers are robust computers engineered to deliver services to other devices
(known as clients) within the network. These services can range from website hosting
and email services to file storage and more.

4. Clients: Clients are computing devices such as your personal computer, laptop, or
smartphone that request and utilize services provided by servers. Clients can be thin
(performing only basic tasks like input/output) or thick (handling more complex
operations), depending on the workload they handle.

5. Network Interface Cards (NIC): A NIC is a hardware component that enables a

device to connect to a network. Whether wired or wireless, a NIC translates the data
produced by the computer into a format suitable for network transmission.

6. Network Cables: Network cables, such as Ethernet cables or Fibre Optic cables,
provide a physical medium for devices to communicate in a network. In contrast,
wireless networking relies on radio waves, eliminating the need for physical cables.

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 Network Topologies
Network topology refers to the arrangement or the pattern in which network devices (nodes)
are connected to each other. The design and topology can greatly impact the network’s
robustness, scalability, and overall performance.

1. Star Topology: The star topology is marked by all devices connecting directly to a
central node or a hub. This central hub acts as a repeater, forwarding data received
from any node to all other nodes in the network. The failure of one device doesn’t
cripple the network, but if the central hub fails, all communication breaks down.

2. Ring Topology: In a ring topology, each device (or node) connects to exactly two other
devices, forming a circular network pathway. Information, in this case, can travel in
one direction or both, passing through each device until it reaches its destination.
However, the failure of a single device can disrupt the entire network.

3. Bus Topology: In bus topology, all devices share a common communication line or
cable, known as a bus. Data from the source computer travels in both directions to its
destination. While this topology is easy to install and requires less cable, a fault or
disruption in the main cable can bring down the entire network.

4. Mesh Topology: A mesh topology features a unique setup where each node is
interconnected to every other node in the network. This design provides high
redundancy. If one path becomes unavailable, data can traverse through another path
to reach the destination. However, this setup requires more cabling, making it more
expensive and complex to implement.

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 5. Tree Topology: A tree topology is a hybrid topology, combining the characteristics of
star and bus topologies. It contains root nodes (typically servers), from which
connection hierarchically descends in a tree-like pattern to other network devices. A
break in the connection can isolate a whole section of the network.

Understanding Packet Switching

Packet switching is a method of grouping data transmitted over a digital network into packets.
In this method, data is broken into small, manageable blocks (packets) before transmission.
These packets travel across the network independently of each other and are reassembled at
the destination.

Packet switching is an efficient use of network bandwidth and allows for robust data transfer.
For example, even if a single packet is lost in the transmission, only that packet needs to be
resent, not the entire data stream.

Network Protocols
Network protocols define the rules for communication between network devices. They
prescribe the format and order of messages that computers must follow to exchange data.
Some of the major network protocols include:

1. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): This is a suite of

communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on the Internet. TCP/IP
specifies how data should be packetized, addressed, transmitted, routed, and received
at the destination.

2. UDP (User Datagram Protocol): UDP is a simpler, connectionless Internet protocol.

Unlike TCP, UDP does not guarantee the delivery of packets. Thus, the application
must take care of the complete transmission.

3. HTTP & HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol & Hypertext Transfer Protocol
Secure): HTTP is used for transmitting hypermedia documents (like HTML), and
HTTPS is a secure version that encrypts the data for secure transmission.

4. FTP & SFTP (File Transfer Protocol & Secure File Transfer Protocol): FTP is
used for transferring files between an client and a server on a network. SFTP is a
secure version of FTP, where data and passwords are encrypted for transmission.

5. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): ICMP is used by network devices to

send error messages and operational information.

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Domain Name System (DNS)
The Domain Name System (DNS) is a foundational element of the Internet infrastructure. It
serves as the Internet’s phonebook, translating user-friendly domain names
like [Link] into IP addresses, like [Link], that computers use to identify each
other on the network.

How DNS Works.

Without DNS, we would have to memorize the IP addresses of each website we wanted to
visit, which is not practical. When you type a URL into your web browser, a DNS query is
initiated, and it traverses through the hierarchical DNS structure to retrieve the corresponding
IP address for the site.

IP Addressing
An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique identifier assigned to each device participating in
a network. It serves two primary functions: identifying the host or network interface, and
providing the location of the host in the network.

There are two versions of IP addresses in use: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses,
limiting it to approximately 4.3 billion addresses. With the ever-growing number of devices,
IPv4 addresses are insufficient. Thus, IPv6 was introduced, which uses 128-bit addresses,
offering a virtually unlimited number of addresses.

Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) and Subnetting

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CIDR is a method for allocating IP addresses and routing Internet Protocol packets. It
replaced the previous system based on classes (Class A, B, and C), providing more efficient
and flexible allocation of IP addresses. In CIDR notation, an IP address is followed by a slash
and a number, for example, [Link]/24. Here, 24indicates that the first 24 bits are used for
the network prefix, and the remaining bits (32–24 = 8 bits in this case) are used for host
addresses within the network.

Subnetting, on the other hand, is a practice of dividing a network into two or more smaller
networks, each called a subnet. Each subnet operates as a separate network, which allows an
organization to connect to the Internet with a single shared network address, with the subnets
organized internally. Subnetting can enhance network performance and improve security.

Calculate an IP range based on CIDR notation

CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) is a method for allocating IP addresses and routing
Internet Protocol packets. An IP address in CIDR notation is made up of the IP address, a
slash (‘/’) and a number, which denotes the subnet mask.

For example, [Link]/24 refers to the IP range from [Link] to [Link].

The /24 means that the first 24 bits are used for the network prefix, and the last 8 bits (32-24)
are used for hosts within the network. In binary, the subnet mask would be represented as 24
ones followed by 8 zeroes.

To calculate an IP range from CIDR notation, here’s what you can do:

1. Determine the number of host bits: Subtract the subnet size from 32 (the total
number of bits in an IP address). For example, in [Link]/24, 32-24 equals 8 host
bits.

2. Calculate the number of hosts: Raise 2 to the power of the number of host bits to find
the total number of possible addresses, including the network and broadcast addresses.
For our example, that’s 2⁸, which equals 256.

3. Find the range: The first address in the range is the network address (in our
example, [Link] ), and the last address is the broadcast address (in our
example, [Link] ). The usable IP addresses for hosts are the ones in between
these ( [Link] to [Link] ).

Let’s take another example: [Link]/26

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 1. The number of host bits is 32–26 = 6.

2. The number of possible addresses is 2⁶ = 64.

3. The network address is [Link], the broadcast address is [Link] (0 + 64 - 1),

and the usable IP addresses are [Link] to [Link].

This is the basic idea behind calculating IP ranges based on CIDR notation. The ability to
partition an IP address into a network and host address is what makes routing possible.

The OSI Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual framework used to

understand and describe how different network protocols interact and work together to
provide network services. The model is divided into seven layers:

1. Physical Layer: This layer represents the physical devices and media in the network. It
involves the transfer of raw, unstructured data over physical medium like cables or
through the air in the case of wireless networks.

2. Data Link Layer: This layer is responsible for defining a common way of interpreting
these signals, so network devices can communicate. It provides node-to-node data
transfer and also detects and corrects errors that may occur in the Physical Layer.

3. Network Layer: It is responsible for packet forwarding, including routing through

different routers in the network. It manages network connections and implements
packet handling rules.

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 4. Transport Layer: This layer ensures reliable data transmission. It provides error-
checking mechanisms and data flow controls. Protocols like TCP and UDP operate at
this layer.

5. Session Layer: It manages communication sessions, i.e., continuous exchanges of

information in the form of multiple back-and-forth transmissions between two nodes.

6. Presentation Layer: It translates data between the network format and the format the
application accepts. This layer is also responsible for data encryption and decryption,
compression, and translation.

7. Application Layer: The topmost layer of the OSI model is where network applications
and user processes reside. This layer interacts with software applications that
implement a communicating component. Protocols like HTTP, FTP, and SMTP
operate at this layer.

Let’s break down the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, which is a seven-layer
framework that standardizes and categorizes the functions of a communication system into
abstraction layers. To make it easier to understand for a general audience, we’ll provide both a
straightforward example of how data moves through the layers and an analogy comparing the
OSI model to a real-world process.

Example
Let’s say you’re sending an email from your laptop. Here’s how it would work at each layer:

1. Application Layer: This is where you interact with the email client, typing up your
message and hitting the ‘Send’ button.

2. Presentation Layer: The text of your email is converted into a standardized format
that can be understood by email systems. Encryption also happens here if needed.

3. Session Layer: A communication session between your email client and the email
server is set up and managed.

4. Transport Layer: The email message is divided into smaller chunks, or ‘packets’, so
they can be transmitted over the network.

5. Network Layer: Each packet is given an IP address to indicate where it’s being sent.

6. Data Link Layer: The packets are translated into bits of data that can be sent over the
physical network. Error detection and correction happen here.

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 7. Physical Layer: The actual physical transmission of the data occurs, such as electrical
signals sent over a wire, light pulses in a fiber-optic cable, or wireless signals for a Wi-
Fi network.

The receiving computer then processes these packets in the reverse order, starting from the
physical layer and working its way up to the application layer.

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