SENSORS AND CONTROL

Chapter 3

SENSOR

Semester 3
Devdatt R Pandya
Assistant Professor
Mechatronics Engineering BSPP
DRP
 Contents
❖ Sensors- Need and classification.
❖ Important parameters (such as sensitivity, linearity, range, response time, accuracy,
repeatability, Resolution, threshold value etc.) Its definitions and Importance in sensor
Selection.
❖ Working and application of sensing technique for following parameter.
▪ Position and speed. ▪ Acoustic
▪ Stress, strain. ▪ Optical
▪ Temperature. ▪ Object detection
▪ Pressure. ▪ Humidity
▪ Flow and level. ▪ Velocity
▪ Vibration ▪ Acceleration
❖ Selection criteria for sensors
❖ Common troubles and remedies in sensor operations
 Disclaimer
The contents used in this presentation are taken from the text books mentioned
in references and other. I do not hold any copyrights for the contents. It has
been prepared to use in the class lectures, not for commercial purpose.
 Introduction
- The primary sensing element (sensor) is the first and foremost requirement for measurement
and automatic controls. The sensors sense the condition, state or value of the process variable
and produce on output which reflects this condition, state or value.

- A generalized measuring system consists of three functional elements.

- The one that is in direct contact with the measuring quantity is called sensing element or
transducer.
- Transducer normally converts one type of energy into the other type, therefore it is known as the
“energy converter”.
- It is also known as sensing device, which converts the physical quantity or the chemical reaction
into the Electrical, Pneumatic or Hydraulic signal.

- Examples of transducer are thermometer bulb, bourdon tube, loud speaker, strain gauge,
phonograph pick up etc.
List of Static characteristics

1. Accuracy 2. Precision
3. Repeatability 4. Reproducibility
5. Stability 6. Resolution
7. Sensitivity 8. Responsiveness
9. Linearity 10. Drift
11. Threshold 12. Dead Zone
Accuracy and precision:
Accuracy and precision are two important factors to consider while taking measurements. Both these
terms reflect how close a measurement is to a known or accepted value.
Accuracy:
The ability of the instrument to measure the accurate value is known as accuracy. In other words, the closeness
of the measured value to a standard or true value.

The accuracy of the system is classified into three types as follows:

• Point Accuracy
• Accuracy as Percentage of Scale Range
• Accuracy as Percentage of True Value
Precision:
The closeness of two or more measurements to each other is known as the precision of a substance. Precision
also relate with the terms,
• Repeatability: it refers to same product, same instrument in identical conditions, location and
environment over a short time span.
• Reproducibility: it refers to measurement of same input quantity with different conditions, different
devices, different location and environment and at different times. e.g. identical products manufactured
in industries situated at different location relates to reproducibility.
The concept of accuracy
and precision can be more
vivid by considering normal
distribution curve for any
process powers. See figures
(a),(b),(c) and (d).
Who is more accurate when measuring a book that has a true length of 17.0 cm?
1ST Person:
17.0 cm, 16.0 cm, 18.0 cm, 15.0 cm
Example: Known Density = 3.11 g/mL
2nd Person:: • Test Results 3.77, 3.81, 3.76, 3.80
15.5 cm, 15.0 cm, 15.2 cm, 15.3 cm
• Precise, not accurate
• Test Results 3.01, 3.89, 3.50, 5.99
Which set is more precise? • Neither
1. 18.2 , 18.4 , 18.35 • Test Results 3.04, 3.20, 3.13, 3.07
2. 17.9 , 18.3 , 18.85 • Accurate, not precise
3. 16.8 , 17.2 , 19.44 • Test Results 3.11, 3.12, 3.12, 3.10
• Both
➢ Stability
• It is the ability of measuring system to maintain its standard of performance over prolonged
periods of time.
• High stability reduces frequent calibration of instrument.
➢ Resolution
• It is the smallest increment of the input quantity to which the measuring system responds.
➢ Sensitivity
• It is the ratio of the change in output signal to a change in input quantity.
➢ Responsiveness
• It denotes the smallest change in the quantity under measurement which results in an actuating
effect required to cause motion of the indicating part of the instrument.
➢ Linearity
• It is the proportionality between input quantity and output signal.
➢ Drift
• It is a slow variation in output signal of a measuring system which is not due to any change in
input quantity.
➢ Threshold
• It is the minimum input quantity that is necessary to cause a detectable change in output signal
from zero indication.
➢ Dead zone
• The largest change in the input quantity to which the measuring system does not respond.
• It is also known as dead band or dead space.
➢ Speed response:
• Time taken by the sensor to respond should be minimum. Response time should be very less.
➢ Reliability:
• Reliability of the sensor should be high. Mean time to failure (MTTF) should be high. It results
the increased life.
➢ Maintenance: should also be easy and frequency of maintenance required should be less over
the period.
➢ Calibration:
• Sensors need frequent calibration for many reasons. Hence, it should be easy to calibrate. Drift
should be as minimum as possible.
➢ Cost:
• Cost of the sensor should be low.
➢ The nature of output required from the sensor whether the digital or analog has to be
considered while selecting a sensor.
➢ Environmental conditions:
• Sensors should operate over wide environmental conditions such as temperature, corrosion,
pressure, shocks etc.
Interfacing:
Sensors should be compatible with different instruments for interfacing.
Size and weight:
Sensors should have small size and less weight.
Classification of Sensors

a) The role they play e.g. Signal converters → Input, output, power or inverse
transducers.

b) Basic principles of operation e.g. Mechanical, Electrical, thermal etc.

c) A system e.g. Open loop, closed loop etc.

d) Analog or Digital e.g. Nature of output

e) Quantity they measure e.g. Force, Torque, Temperature, Pressure etc.

f) Active or Passive Active : Energy converter

Passive : Resistors, Capacitors, constitute of this group
Active Sensors
• Active transducer draws a certain amount of energy from the medium or system under study and
converts it into electrical signal in the form of voltage or current. e.g. A thermocouple.
• Active transducer does not need an external source of electrical supply to convert input physical
quantity into proportional electrical output.
• It is self-excited.
• It is also known as self generating transducer.
• Examples are Piezo electric pick up, Thermocouple, Thermopile, Radiation pyrometer, Photo
voltaic cell etc.

Passive Sensors
• Passive transducer needs to be excited by external electrical supply in order to recognise its
response to the measurand.
• Electrical circuit elements such as resistors, capacitors, self and mutual inductors constitute
passive group of transducers.
• Examples are Resistance thermometer, Strain gauge, Thermister, Hot wire anemometer, Liquid
level gauge, Differential transformer etc. It is also known as self generating transducer.
Type of Examples Applications
Transducer
1) Passive
transducers
(i) Resistance 1) Strain gauge Force, Torque, Displacement measurement.
transducers 2) Potentiometric devices Pressure, Displacement measurement.
3) Pirani gauge or Hot wire Gas pressure, Gas flow measurement.
anemometer Temperature, Radiant heat measurement.
4) Resistance thermometer Temperature measurement.
5) Thermister

(ii) Capacitance 1) Liquid level gauge Liquid level, Thickness measurement.

transducers 2) Capacitor microphone Speech, Music, Audio level measurement.
3) Variable capacitance pressure Displacement, Pressure measurement.
gauge Shaft torque measurement.
4) Torque meter
(iii) Inductive 1) LVDT pressure gauge Pressure measurement.
transducers 2) Reluctance type Pressure, Displacement, Vibration
3) Eddy current gauge measurement.
4) Magneto striction gauge Displacement, Thickness measurement.
Force, Pressure, Sound measurement.
Type of Examples Applications
Transducer
1) Active or Self 1) Thermo-couple, Thermo-pile Temperature, Radiant heat flow measurement.
generating 2) Moving coil generator Velocity, Vibration measurement.
Transducers 3) Piezo electric pickups Sound, Vibration, Acceleration measurement.
4) Photo voltaic cell Light meter.

Difference between Active transducer and Passive transducer

Active Transducer Passive Transducer

a) Active transducer works on the principle of a) Passive transducer works on the principle of
energy conversion energy control
b) Active transducers do not require external electric b) As passive transducers do not produce emf they
supply for signal conversion. They generate emf needs external electrical supply to operate.
themselves,
c) Thermocouples, Piezo electric pick ups, Photo c) LVDT, Strain gauge are examples of passive
voltaic cell etc. are examples of active transducers. transducers. They can not work without external
They generate emf themselves(for example, supply.
thermocouple converts temperature variations into
electric voltage).
POSITION AND SPEED MEASUREMENT
Sensing Technique for Various Parameters
POSITION AND SPEED MEASUREMENT

➢ Other than electrical measurements (e.g., voltage, current, and resistance), the most commonly measured
quantity in mechatronic systems is position. We often need to know where various parts of a system are in
order to control the system.

➢ Speed measurements can be obtained by taking consecutive position measurements at known time
intervals and computing the time rate of change of the position values. A tachometer is an example of a
speed sensor that does this for a rotating shaft.
POSITION AND SPEED MEASUREMENT
Proximity Sensors and Switches:

A proximity sensor consists of an element that changes either its state or an analog signal when
it is close to, but often not actually touching, an object. Many different sensors types are
available that operate based on magnetic, capacitive, inductive, ultrasonic, eddy current, or
photo-optic effects.
Proximity Sensors and Switches:

• A Proximity Sensor is a non-contact type sensor that detects the

presence of an object.
• Proximity sensors detect the presence or absence of objects using
electromagnetic fields, light, and sound. There are many types, each
suited to specific applications and environments.
• Some of the applications of Proximity Sensors are Mobile Phones, Cars
(Parking Sensors), industries (object alignment), Ground Proximity in
Aircrafts, etc.
Proximity Sensors and Switches:

Type Use

Inductive Detection of metallic objects

Detection of metallic and non-

Capacitive
metallic objects

Use light sensitive elements to detect

Photoelectric
objects

Detects the presence of permanent

Magnetic
magnets
Advantages of Proximity sensors

• No physical contact and therefore no stress

• No wear and tear, hence long life
• Contact less and therefore maintenance free
• Electronic high precision
• Protected and safe switching in harsh environments
• High switching rate
• Potential-free contact, thus not prone to false pulses
Proximity Sensors and Switches:
Proximity Sensors and Switches: Inductive sensors – Fundamental Principles

• Inductive sensors in the form of inductive proximity switches, also

known as initiators, are widely used in automation and the process
industry.
• They work without physical contact and feedback.
• Due to their enclosed design they are very resistant to
environmental influences and distinguish themselves by high
reliability.
• These sensors are contactless and thus allow for high switching
frequencies with high life cycle.
Proximity Sensors and Switches: Inductive Sensor | Advantages and Disadvantages:

❑ Advantages:
• Accurate compared to other technologies.
• Have high switching rate
• Can work in harsh environment condition
❑ Disadvantages:
• Detect only metallic target
• Operating range may be limited
Proximity Sensors and Switches: Capacitive Sensors - Fundamental Principles

• Capacitive sensors use a similar principle of inductive sensors. Only main

difference is that capacitive sensors produce electrostatic field instead of an
electromagnetic field.
• Like inductive sensors, capacitive sensors also work without touching, in a non-
interacting and contactless way. They add to the range of sensor applications
where the inductive operating principle is unsuitable.
• Capacitive sensors can also detect non-conducting materials.
• Capacitive sensors are mainly available as proximity switches, recently,
however, analog sensors have also become available, i.e. sensors which give an
output signal proportional to the separation.
• Like inductive sensors, these plates
are linked to an oscillator, a Schmitt
trigger, and an output amplifier
• Difference between the inductive
and capacitive sensors: Inductive
sensors oscillate until the target is
present and capacitive sensors
oscillate when the target is present.
Proximity Sensors and Switches: Capacitive Sensors | Advantages and Disadvantages:

❑ Advantages:
• It can detect both metallic and non-metallic objects.
• High speed
• Good stability
• Good in terms of power usage
• Low cost
❑ Disadvantages:
• Affected by temperature and humidity.
• Not accurate compared to inductive sensors
• Difficulties in designing
Proximity Sensors and Switches: Photo-optic proximity sensors
Photo-optic proximity sensors are very common and use a photoemitter-detector pair represents another
approach, where interruption or reflection of a beam of light is used to detect an object in a noncontact
manner. The emitter can be a laser or focused LED, and the detector is usually a phototransistor or
photodiode. Various configurations for photoemitter-detector pairs are illustrated in Figure:
Proximity Sensors and Switches: Photo-optic proximity sensors

In the opposed and

retroreflective configurations, the
object interrupts the beam; and
in the proximity configuration, the
object reflects the beam.

Common applications for

proximity sensors and limit
switches are detecting the
presence of an object (e.g., a
man in front of a public urinal),
counting moving objects (e.g.,
passing by on a conveyor belt),
and in limiting the traverse of a
mechanism (e.g., by detecting
the end of travel of a slider or
joint).
Proximity Sensors and Switches: Advantages:

• The optical signal is immune to electro-magnetic interference and hence it is ideal to be

employed in microwave environment.
• It has very high sensitivity , range and resolution compare to non optical sensors.
• It has wider dynamic range.
• It is completely passive and hence used in explosive environment.
• It is small in size and light in weight.
It is resistant to high temperatures and chemically reactive environment. Hence optical
sensors are ideal for hostile and harsh environment.
• It can be used to monitor wide range of physical as well as chemical parameters as listed
above.
• It provides complete electrical insulation from high electrostatic potential.
Multiplexed/distributed sensors provide measurements at large number of distributed points.
Proximity Sensors and Switches: Disadvantages:

• The only problem with both optical sensor and non-optical sensor is interference from multiple
effects. For example, sensor used for pressure/strain measurement is very sensitive to
temperature variation. Research is in progress to study and find out ways to have distinction
between these different effects to have accurate measurement in optical sensing.

• The other concern different types of losses involved in optical domain. The common among
them are absorption loss, scattering loss, coupler loss, insertion loss, reflection loss, impurity
loss etc.
Proximity Sensors and Switches: Potentiometer

❖ Linear Resistive Potentiometer:

• Resistive potentiometers are one of the most widely used forms of position sensor can be
angular or linear.

• Consists of a length of resistive material with a sliding contact onto the resistive track

• When used as a position transducer a potential is placed across the two end terminals, the
voltage on the sliding contact is then proportional to its position

• An inexpensive and easy to use sensor.

Proximity Sensors and Switches: Potentiometer
Proximity Sensors and Switches: Potentiometer

The rotary potentiometer (aka pot) is a variable resistance device that can be used to measure
angular position. It consists of a wiper that makes contact with a resistive element, and as this
point of contact moves, the resistance between the wiper and end leads of the device changes in
proportion to the angular displacement.
Figure illustrates the form and internal schematic for a typical rotary potentiometer.
Proximity Sensors and Switches: Potentiometer
Proximity Sensors and Switches: Linear Variable Differential Transformer(LVDT)

LVDT is a passive inductive transducer and is commonly employed to measure force (or weight,
pressure and acceleration etc. which depend on force) in terms of the amount and direction of
displacement of an object, therefore it measures linear displacement.

Construction:
- It consists of one primary winding (P) and two secondary windings (S1 and S2) which are placed on
either side of the primary mounted on the same magnetic core. The magnetic core is free to move
axially inside the coil assembly and the motion being measured is mechanically coupled to it.
Proximity Sensors and Switches: Linear Variable Differential Transformer(LVDT)

The two secondaries S1 and S2, have equal number of turns but are connected in series opposition
so that [Link], (E1 and E2) induced in them are 180° out of phase with each other and hence cancel
each other out.
- The primary is energized from a suitable A.C. source.
Proximity Sensors and Switches: Linear Variable Differential Transformer(LVDT)

Working:
- When the core is in the center (called reference position) the
induced voltages E1 and E2 are equal and opposite. Hence
they cancel out and the output voltages V0 is zero.

- when the external applied force moves the core towards coil
S2, E2 is increased but E1 decreased in magnitude though they
are still antiphase with each other. The net voltage available
is (E2 - E1) and is in phase with E2.

- Similarly, when the magnitude core moves towards coil S1,

E1 > E2, and V0 = E1 – E2 and is in phase with E1. Thus, from
above discussion, we find that the magnitude of V0 is a
function of the distance moved by the core and its polarity or
phase indicates as to in which direction it has moved.
- If core is attached to moving object, the magnitude of V0
gives the position of that object.
Proximity Sensors and Switches: Linear Variable Differential Transformer(LVDT)

Advantages:
1. It gives a high output and therefore many a times there is no need for intermediate amplification
devices.
2. The transducer possesses a high sensitivity as high as 40 V/mm.
3. It shows a low hysteresis and hence repeatability is excellent under all conditions.
4. Most of the LVDTs consume a power of less than 1 W.
5. Less friction and less noise (due to absence of sliding contacts).
6. These transducers can usually tolerate a high degree of shock and vibration without any adverse
effects.
7. It can operate over a temperature range from -265°C to 600°C.
8. It is available in radiation-resistant design for operation in nuclear reactors.

Disadvantages:

1. These transducers are sensitive to stray magnetic fields but shielding is possible. This is done
by providing magnetic shields with longitudinal slots.
Proximity Sensors and Switches: Linear Variable Differential Transformer(LVDT)

2. Relatively large displacements are required for appreciable differential output.

3. The receiving instrument must be selected to operate on A.C. signals or demodulator network
must be used if a D.C. output is required.
4. Several times, the transducer performance is affected by vibrations.
5. The dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass of core and electrically by the
frequency of applied voltage. The frequency of the carrier should be at least ten times the
highest frequency component to be measured.

Applications:

1. Measurement of material thickness in hot strip or slab steel mills.

2. In accelerometers.
3. Jet engine controls in close proximity to exhaust gases.

Note. LVDT is not suited for fast dynamic measurements on account of mass of the core.
Proximity Sensors and Switches: Digital Optical Encoder:

A digital optical encoder is a device that converts motion into a

sequence of digital pulses. By counting a single bit or decoding a set
of bits, the pulses can be converted to relative or absolute position
measurements.

Encoders have both linear and rotary configurations, but the most
common type is rotary. Rotary encoders are manufactured in two
basic forms: the absolute encoder where a unique digital word
corresponds to each rotational position of the shaft, and the
incremental encoder, which produces digital pulses as the shaft
rotates, allowing measurement of relative displacement of the shaft.

As illustrated in Figure, most rotary encoders are composed of a glass

or plastic code disk with a printed or photographically-deposited radial
pattern organized in tracks. As radial lines in each track interrupt the
beam between a photoemitter-detector pair, digital pulses are
produced.

Application: Two interesting applications of encoders: a computer

mouse and an industrial robot.
Schematic Diagram

Typical Construction
Simple Rotary Encoder Quadrature Encoder

Binary Encoder
STRESS AND STRAIN MEASUREMENT
STRESS AND STRAIN MEASUREMENT:

- Measurement of stress in a mechanical component is important when assessing whether or not

the component is subjected to safe load levels.

- Stress and strain measurements can also be used to indirectly measure other physical
quantities such as force (by measuring strain of a flexural element), pressure (by measuring
strain in a flexible diaphragm), and temperature (by measuring thermal expansion of a material).

- The most common transducer used to measure strain is the electrical resistance strain gage.
As we will see, stress values can be determined from strain measurements using principles of
solid mechanics.
Stress and Strain Measurement: Electrical Resistance Strain Gage
Stress and Strain Measurement: Electrical Resistance Strain Gage

The most common transducer for experimentally

measuring strain in a mechanical component is the
bonded metal foil strain gage illustrated in Figure. It
consists of a thin foil of metal, usually constantan,
deposited as a grid pattern onto a thin plastic backing
material, usually polyimide. The foil pattern is
terminated at both ends with large metallic pads that
allow lead-wires to be easily attached with solder. The
entire gage is usually very small, typically 5 to 15 mm
long.
Stress and Strain Measurement: Electrical Resistance Strain Gage

To measure strain on the surface of a machine

component or structural member, the gage is
adhesively bonded directly to the component, usually
with epoxy or cyanoacrylate. The backing makes the foil
gage easy to handle and provides a good bonding
surface that also electrically insulates the metal foil
from the component. Lead-wires are then soldered to
the solder tabs on the gage.

When the component is loaded, the metal foil deforms,

and the resistance changes in a predictable way (see
below). If this resistance change is measured
accurately, the strain on the surface of the component
can be determined. Strain measurements allow us to
determine the state of stress on the surface of the
component, where stresses typically have their highest
values.
Stress and Strain Measurement: Electrical Resistance Strain Gage

To use strain gages to accurately measure strains

experimentally, we need to be able to accurately
measure small changes in resistance. The most
common circuit used to do this is the Wheatstone
bridge, which consists of a four-resistor network excited
by a DC voltage.

A Wheatstone bridge is better than a simple voltage

divider because it can be easily balanced to establish an
accurate zero position, it allows temperature
compensation, and it can provide better sensitivity and
accuracy. There are two different modes of operation of
a Wheatstone bridge circuit: the static balanced mode
and the dynamic unbalanced mode.
Stress and Strain Measurement: Electrical Resistance Strain Gage
Stress and Strain Measurement: Electrical Resistance Strain Gage

Measuring Resistance Changes: with Wheatstone bridge

A Wheatstone bridge can be used to measure a physical quantity of interest with any resistance-
change-based sensor (not just a strain gage). For example, a thermistor’s resistance changes with
temperature, a photoresistorʼs resistance changes with light intensity, some pressure sensors and
accelerometers detect resistance changes, and some inexpensive force and flex sensors use
conductive-ink elements that change resistance with applied pressure or deformation. All of these
sensors use resistance change to measure the quantity of interest, and the Wheatstone bridge
works just as effectively as with a strain gage.
Stress and Strain Measurement: Electrical Resistance Strain Gage
Temperature Measurement
Temperature Measurement:
Because temperature is such an important variable in many engineering systems, an engineer
should be familiar with the basic methods of measuring it. Temperature sensors appear in
buildings, chemical process plants, engines, transportation vehicles, appliances, computers, and
many other devices that require monitoring and control of temperature. Because many physical
phenomena depend on temperature, we can use this dependence to indirectly measure
temperature by measuring quantities such as pressure, volume, electrical resistance, and strain
and then convert the values using the physical relationship between the quantity and temperature.

The temperature scales used to express temperature are:

▪ Celsius (°C): Common SI unit of temperature.

▪ Kelvin (K): Standard SI unit of absolute thermodynamic temperature. Note the absence of the
degree symbol.
Temperature Measurement: Mercury in glass thermometer

• This type of thermometer consists of a bulb filled with mercury attached to the glass tube
indicate the temperature in °C.

• When the bulb is heated or brought in to contact with the heated substance the volume of
the mercury increases.

• Hence the mercury rises up in the capillary tube.

• Since the area of the capillary is much less than the area of the bulb, relatively small
changes of the volume of the mercury will result in significant rise in the capillary.

• The free surface of the mercury in the tube indicates the temperature of the bulb and hence the temperature
of the heated substance.

• The range of the mercury thermometer is – 39 °C to 340 °C.

• Mercury thermometers are not commonly used in the industries because they are difficult to read and fragile
in construction.

• Mercury thermometers are used for temperature measurement in applications like open liquid tanks,
pipelines, air-ducts, steam lines, cooking kettle etc.
Temperature Measurement: Bimetallic Thermometer

• Bimetallic strips consist of two

pieces of different metals welded
together.

• Each piece of metal strip is having a

different coefficient of expansion.

• The strip bends when it is subjected

to heat.
Temperature Measurement: Bimetallic Thermometer

• In the industrial bimetallic thermometer the bimetal strip is wound in the helical form.

• The bimetal strip is made from Brass and Invar metals.

• The thermal expansion constant of Brass is 0.189 x 10−4 and for Invar ( 36% Iron – 64% Nickel
alloy ) is 0.009 x 10−4 .

• One end of the strip is fastened permanently to the outer casing and the other end is connected
to the pointer stem.

• When the temperature surrounding the whole stem changes, the bimetal expands and the helical
bimetal rotates at its free end, thus turning the inside stem and the pointer on the dial.

• The pointer rotates on the calibrated dial and indicates the temperature.

• Typical range of Bimetallic thermometer is – 74 °C to 540 °C .

Uses
• For automatic control of temperature in home appliances.

• For measurement and control of temperature in industries.

• For measurement of temperature of engines, reaction chambers, furnace [Link] the laboratory.

Advantages
• Simple and inexpensive design.

• Quite rugged construction, minimum possibility of damage.

• Different shapes can be selected to suit the particular requirements.

Thermistor

o Principle of operation
• Thermister is a contraction of term “ Thermal Resistors ”.
• They are essentially semiconductors, which behave as resistance
with negative temperature co-efficient.
• As the temperature of the Thermistor increases, its resistance
reduces.
• The temperature co-efficient of the Thermistor is 10 times higher
than the temperature co-efficient of the metallic resistance wire.
• Hence the resistance change per degree in the temperature is
relatively high in the thermistors.
• They have high sensitivity.

o Construction and working

• Thermistors are composed of sintered mixture of metallic oxides
such as manganese, nickel, cobalt, iron and uranium.
• These metallic oxides are milled, mixed in appropriate proportions
are pressed into the desired shape with appropriate binders and
finally sintered.
• The electrical terminals are finally embedded before baking.
• Thermistors may be shaped in the form of beads,
disks, washers and rods.
• The thermistors are smaller in size because their
resistivity is high compared to the resistivity of
the resistance wire.
• As shown in fig the thermistor is connected as
one leg of the Wheatstone bridge circuit.
• At the reference temperature the bridge circuit is
balanced and the flow of current in the
galvanometer is zero and the pointer shows zero.
• When the thermistor is brought in to contact with
the heated object.
• Thermistors can be operated safely in the
temperature range from - 100° C to 300° C
o Advantages
• High sensitivity
• High accuracy and stability
• Smaller in size
• Faster thermal response
• High resolution can measure small temperature change up to 0.0005°C

o Disadvantages
• Resistance – temperature relationship is non-linear.
• Can be used only for process applications
• Power line filters and shields are required due to high resistance.
• Can be used up to 300°C only and for any application the range of operation is limited to 100°C

o Applications
• Temperature measurement and control
• For temperature compensation
• As sensing element in level switches
• As sensing elements in flow meters
• For gas analysis.
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)

Resistive Temperature Detector: The RTDs use the phenomenon that the resistance of a metal
changes with temperature. They are, however, linear over a wide range and most stable.

An electrical current is passed through the sensor, the resistance element is used to measure the
resistance of the current being passed through it. As the temperature of the resistance element
increases the electrical resistance also increases. The electrical resistance is measured in Ohms.
Advantages of platinum as RTD

 The temperature-resistance characteristics of pure platinum are stable over a wide range of

temperatures.

 It has high resistance to chemical attack and contamination

 It forms the most easily reproducible type of temperature transducer with a high degree of

accuracy .

 It can have accuracy ± 0.01 oC up to 500 oC and ± 0.1 oC up to 1200 oC.

Limitations of RTD

• These are resistive devices, and accordingly they function by passing a current through a sensor.

• Even though only a very small current is generally employed, it creates a certain amount of heat
and thus can throw off the temperature reading.

• This self heating in resistive sensors can be significant when dealing with a still fluid (i.e., one that
is neither flowing nor agitated), because there is less carry-off of the heat generated.

• This problem does not arise with thermocouples, which are essentially zero-current devices.
Difference between resistance thermometer and thermistors

Resistance thermometer Thermistors

1. Resistance wire is made from metals like copper, Thermistors are made up of sintered mixture of
nickel and platinum metallic oxides such as manganese, nickel, cobalt,
copper, iron and uranium

2. Resistivity of the metal wire is low Resistivity of the thermistors is high

3. Resistance change for each degree temperature Resistance change for each degree temperature
changes is small changes is large
4. Resistance increases as the temperature increases Resistance decreases as the temperature increases

5. Can measure temperature up to 600 °C Can measure temperature up to 300 °C

6. High time stability Low time stability

❖ Instruments working on the principle of thermo electric effect :

Thermocouple

I. Principle of operation
• As shown in figure when the two dissimilar
metals are joined together to form a closed
loop circuit, two junctions are formed.

• When one of the junction is heated the current

flows in the circuit, which can be measured
with the galvanometer

• The polarity and magnitude of the current

depends on the properties of the metals and
the junction temperature difference.
II. Construction and working
• The measuring junction of the thermocouple is kept
in a protective metal sheath and head assembly.
• The measuring junction is connected with the
voltmeter and reference junction with the help of
extension wire
• This extension wire is also known as compensating
lead.
• The properties of the compensating leads must be
same as that of the thermocouple but should have
low resistance and must be cheaper.
• when the thermocouple is heated, emf is produced
which is measured by the voltmeter connected to it.
• As the voltmeter is calibrated for temperature.
• It shows the temperature of the measuring junction.
III Temperature compensation
• The emf produced by the thermocouple is proportional to the temperature differences between the cold
and hot junctions.
• As the ambient temperature changes, the temperature of the cold junction also varies and it results in the
variations in the emf produced by the thermocouple and results in the measurement error.
• This error can be reduced or eliminated by using Wheatstone bridge circuit.
• This arrangement is called as cold junction compensation.
IV. Advantages of Thermocouple
• Rugged construction
• Faster movement
• Easy in operation
• High accuracy
• Remote indication is possible

V. Disadvantages of Thermocouple
• Span of the measurement is only 33% of maximum temperature to be measured.
• Temperature of the reference junction must be constant throughout the measurement or
the temperature compensating devices should be used.
• Amplifiers are required in some applications
• Expensive accessories are required for control applications.
Pressure Measurement
❖ Manometers

o Principle
• Manometers are the instruments where direct measurement is made by comparison with the pressure
due to a column of liquid of known density.
• The manometer is a simple and useful means for measuring partial vacuum and low pressure.
• It is, more over, a primary instrument, it does not require a calibration and it is often used as a standard for
calibration of other instruments.
• We will now describe following type of manometers :

a. U-tube manometer
b. Cistern or well type manometer
c. Inclined tube manometers
Pressure Measurement: U-tube manometer

• As shown in figure a liquid is filled in U-shaped tube.

• The ends of the tubes are connected to the systems of
which pressures are to be measured.
• Depending upon the intensity of pressures in the end
systems the liquid(mercury) will be displaced as under:
• Where the pressure is high the liquid will go down (h1),
while the liquid in the other leg (column) will rise (h2).
• The difference between two levels of the liquid (mercury)
can be read from the scale and then by using a simple
relation, pressure can be determined.
• Suppose P1 and P2 are the pressure of two systems as
shown in figure,  is the density of the liquid e.g.  is the
density of the liquid e.g.  = 13.6 for mercury, g =
gravitational acceleration and h = difference in level.
we have therefore, P1 – P2 = p =  g h. U-tube manometer
❖ Elastic pressure gauges

o Principle

• This type of gauge has an elastic member which deforms under the influence of applied pressure.
• The deformation is linearly proportional to the applied pressure and hence by measuring the deformation the
value of pressure can be obtained.
• Both mechanical or electrical systems can be used to determine deformation.

❖The following types of elastic gauges are popular in use :

a. Bellows type pressure gauge

b. Diaphragm type pressure gauge
c. Pressure capsule
d. Bourdon tube pressure gauge
Pressure Measurement: Bellows type pressure gauge
Principle :
• A metallic bellows is a series of circular parts
which are formed or joined in such a manner
that they are either expanded or contracted
axially by changes in pressure.
• The change in the length of bellows are linearly
proportional to the pressure changes and it is
magnified by mechanical or electrical means
before measuring.
• The commonly used materials for bellows are
brass, bronze, beryllium copper, alloys of nickel
and copper etc.
• Bellows elements can be used for the
measurements of absolute, gauge and
differential pressure, where deflection is
expected to be small.
o Limitations
• Temperature compensation is essential
• No over range protection
Diaphragm type pressure gauge
• Diaphragm are thin circular discs of constant thickness.
• They are mostly fabricated from metal alloys such as bronze,
phosphor bronze, beryllium, copper and stainless steel.
• They may be flat, convex or even corrugated.
• The thickness of the plate and its size depend on the range of
pressure to be measured.
• Normally the diameter to thickness ratio vary from 25 to 100
with a thickness ranging from 0.1 mm to 5.0 mm.
• The plate is kept clamped between the flanges or in certain
cases welded around its circumference.
• The same displacements due to the deformation of the
diaphragm under pressure are picked up by noncontact type
electrical secondary transducers or the surface strains of the
diaphragm are sensed and measured by the tiny electrical strain
gauges of negligible mass.
• Flat diaphragm are mainly used in special purpose instruments
such as piezoelectric, capacitance type, induction types strain
gauges having negligible time lag, can measure pressure
attenuating at a frequency of several hundreds or even thousand
hertz.
• Convex diaphragms can be used in pressure relays to actuate an alarm whenever a departure from a purest
pressure takes place.
• Annular corrugations on a diaphragm appreciably improve its reliability and linearize its characteristics.
• It is mostly used as capsule.
• Non-metallic diaphragms fabricated from large-mesh nylon, or silk fabrics impregnated with petrol, oil
resistant rubber or plastic are used for low pressure measurement.
• They lack in stiffness.
• A helical or coil spring is fitted to enhance stiffness.

o Advantages
• Small size
• Cheaper in cost
• Hysteresis effect is less
• Suitable for absolute and differential pressure measurements
• Indicating and recording facilities are possible.

o Disadvantages
• Medium accuracy
• Difficult to repair
• Must be free from vibration and impact
• Suitable for low pressure only
Bourdon tube pressure gauge

• Fig. shows a ‘ C ’type bourdon pressure gauge.

• The gauge comprises of C-shaped tube having oval
cross-section.
• The tube is closed at one end and the pressure is
applied through the other end which is open.
• The tube is free for movement.
• When the tube is subjected to pressure it will try to
occupy circular cross-section which makes the closed
end to move because of the increase in radius of C-
shape.
• The movement of the free closed end is transmitted to
the pointer through mechanical link, gear sector and
pinion arrangement.
• The pointer will indicate pressure on a calibrated scale.
• Helical, oval, spiral bourdon tubes are also used.
• They are fabricated from brass, phosphor bronze,
beryllium, copper, monel metal etc.
Piezoelectric Sensor
Piezoelectric Accelerometer
The highest quality accelerometers are constructed using a piezoelectric crystal, a material whose
deformation results in charge polarization across the crystal. In a reciprocal manner, application of
an electric field to a piezoelectric material results in deformation. As illustrated in Figure

As illustrated in Figure (a), a piezoelectric

accelerometer consists of a crystal in contact
with a mass, supported in a housing by a spring.
The purpose for the preload spring is to help keep
the mass in contact with the crystal and to keep
the crystal in compression, which can help
prolong its life. The crystal itself also has
stiffness that contributes to the overall stiffness
of the system.
Piezoelectric Accelerometer
Working:

When the supporting object experiences acceleration,

relative displacement occurs between the case and the
mass due to the inertia of the mass. The resulting strain in
the piezoelectric crystal causes a displacement charge
between the crystal conductive coatings as a result of the
piezoelectric effect. Note that an accelerometer using a
piezoelectric crystal requires no external power supply. Also,
it is important to recognize that the accelerometer measures
acceleration only in the direction in which it is mounted (i.e.,
along the axis of the spring, mass, and crystal).

The sensitivity of the accelerometer is the ratio of the

charge output to the acceleration of the housing expressed
in pC/g, (rms pC)/g, or (peak pC)/g, where g is the
acceleration due to gravity.
Vibration Sensor
At present in the industry like research and development, the ability of monitoring, measuring as well
as analyzing the vibration is very important. Unfortunately, the suitable techniques for making
a measurement system for vibration with precise & repeatable are not always clear to researchers
with the shades of test tools & analysis of vibration.

The vibration sensor is also called a piezoelectric sensor. These sensors are flexible devices which
are used for measuring various processes. This sensor uses the piezoelectric effects while
measuring the changes within acceleration, pressure, temperature, force otherwise strain by
changing to an electrical charge.
Vibration Sensor : Working Principle
The vibration sensor consists of a piezoelectric crystal that has a seismic mass attached to it. When
the equipment/machine under study experiences vibrations, the crystal is subjected to stress, and an
electric signal is generated, which is then converted to valuable data.

Vibration sensors can be attached to equipment or used wirelessly to monitor the system. Upon
installation, the sensors measure the acceleration, velocity, or displacement of vibration, depending
on the type of vibration sensors employed. The sensitivity of these sensors normally ranges from 10
mV/g to 100 mV/g, and there are lower and higher sensitivities are also accessible. The sensitivity
of the sensor can be selected based on the application. So it is essential to know the levels of
vibration amplitude range to which the sensor will be exposed throughout measurements.
Vibration Sensor : Working Principle
Vibration must be measured since it affects the system's reliability and durability in working
situations. Industrial vibration sensors can aid in the monitoring of system vibration issues. The
benefits of tracking and evaluating equipment or system vibration include:

• Determining necessary repairs

• Root cause analysis of any problem
• Examination of the overall condition of the plant or equipment
• Reduces overall plant running costs by preventing expensive shutdowns in advance

Application:

• Automotive Industry - preserving product quality and the consistency of production operations.
• Oil and Gas Industry - downtime is avoided, resulting in lower operating costs and increased
productivity
• Chemical Industry - optimizing the performance of chemical plants.
• Energy and Power Industry - to track rotor aerodynamic asymmetry, surface roughness,
imbalances, and overall performance.
Sound Sensors Microphones

• a number of forms are available

• e.g. carbon (resistive), capacitive, piezoelectric and
moving-coil microphones
• moving-coil devices use a magnet and a coil attached to a diaphragm – we will
discuss electromagnetism later
LIGHT SENSORS

1. Photodiodes:
"Photodiodes" are semiconductor junction diodes which are connected into a circuit in reverse bias,
so giving a very high resistance, so that when light, falls on the junction the diode resistance drops
and the current in the circuit rises appreciably
- A photodiode can be used as a variable resistance device controlled by the light incident on it.
- These diodes have a very fast response to light.
2. Phototransistors :
The phototransistors have a light-sensitive collector-base P-N junction. When there is no incident
light there is a very small collector-to-emitter current. When light is incident, a base current is
produced that is directly proportional to the light intensity. This leads to the production of a
collector current which is then a measure of the light intensity.

- Phototransistors are often available as integrated packages with the phototransistor connected in
a Darlington arrangement with a conventional transistor, Since this arrangement gives a higher
current gain, the device gives a much greater collector current for a given light intensity.
LIGHT SENSORS

Photoresistor:
It has a resistance which depends on the intensity of the light falling on it, decreasing linearly as the intensity
increases.
- The cadmium sulphide photoresistor is most responsive to light having wavelengths shorter than about 515
nm and the cadmium selinide photoresistor for wavelengths less than about 700 nm.
- An array of light sensors is often required in a small space in order to determine the variations of light
intensity across that space.