chapter 2:

Wave Function and The Schrodinger equation

Pr. ARRAJI Ayoub

... And then to seek truth it is

necessary to be independent,
wholly independent. If on the
contrary we wish to act, to be
strong, we should be united, This
is why many of us fear truth; we
consider it a cause of weakness.
Yet truth should not be feared,
for it alone is beautiful.

Henri Poincare

1 The Schrodinger equation

Here is the most important equation in Quantum mechanics, it describes the
evolution of the state of a quantum system (usually the electron)

dψ −ℏ2
iℏ = ∆ψ + V ψ (1)
dt 2m
In this course we will restrict ourselves to the one dimensional case where the
Laplacian ∆ is the just the second derivative with respect to the space variable
d2
x, ∆ := dx 2

ψ(t, x) is the wave function, it is complex value function that its square
module represents the probability density of finding the particle: The Born
rule.
Here is a plausible argument for the adequacy of This equation. A result of
Fourier analysis, says that a large class of well behaved functions can be written
as the superposition of plane waves

ψ(t, x) = Aei(kx−ωt)

So it suffices to find an equation valid for those plane waves, and then let’s hope
it will be adequate for any general wave. Let’s compute the derivative with

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respect to time, and use the energy expression.
d
ψ(t, x) = iωψ
dt
Hence by multpliying wit iℏ
d
iℏ ψ = ℏωψ
dt
Planck formula ℏω = E
Thus for the plane wave
d
iℏ ψ = Eψ
dt
Now the form of the total energy is the sum of the kinetic energy and the
p2
potential energy E = 2m + V (x) With p is particle momentum.
We recall De Broglie formula from the last chapter

p = ℏk
By deriving the wave function ψ two times with respect to space
d2
ψ = −k 2 ψ
dx2
So using De Broglie formula
d2
−ℏ2 ψ = p2 ψ
dx2
Hence we obrain
−ℏ2 d2 p2
 
ψ + V (x)ψ = + V (x) ψ = Eψ
2m dx2 2m
This yields what we call Time independant Schrodinger equation
−ℏ2 d2
ψ + V (x)ψ = Eψ (2)
2m dx2
And by identification with the above equation of time derivative, we obtain
The time dependent Schrodinger equation
d −ℏ2 d2
iℏ ψ= ψ + V (x)ψ (3)
dt 2m dx2

1.1 Principle of superposition

Any linear combination of possible wave functions (solution to the Schrodinger
equation) is also a possible wave function, so the space of wave functions is
a vector space. we will endow this space with more structure and we will be
working in what we call a Hilbert Space.

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1.1.1 Time independent Schrodinger equation
−ℏ2
Eψ = ∆ψ + V ψ (4)
2m
the objective is to find the values of E for which the solution ψ exists that
verifies some reasonable boundary conditions that are convenient for the prob-
lem. (we will see how this is done in different examples below).

1.1.2 The equivalence between time dependent and time indepen-

dent equation
Here we will show that under some reasonable circumstances, solving the time
independant equation can yields the solution to the time dependent one.
Let’s suppose that we have the following two assumptions

• (4) admits non vanishing solution, only for some handful possible val-
ues of E, let’s call them E1 , E2 , . . . . That corresponding to the solution
ψ1 , ψ2 . . . .
• The set of functions ψ1 , ψ2 , . . . form a basis for the function space that we
are working on.

Remark: We should specify that for every quantum problem, the function
space and the potential form and boundary conditions are conventions that we
impose in order to describe some real physical system, so the adequacy of the
choice is judged by its success a posteriori in prediction and accommodation of
the observable facts.
Now Given those informations, let’s try to solve the time dependent Schrodinger
equation (1)
Let’s decompose the unknown wave function in the basis ψ1 , ψ2 , . . . .
X
ψ(t, x) = xn (t)ψn (x)
n

So the equation(1) becomes

ℏ2 d2
X X  
iℏx˙n ψn = xn − +V ψn
n n
2m dx2
| {z }
En ψn

By identification we found the system of equation for each possible value n.

iℏẋn = En xn
Which admits the solution
iE
xn (t) = xn (0)e− ℏ t

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 Hence the solution of (1) is
iE
X
ψ(t, x) = xn (0)e− ℏ t ψn (x) (5)
n

Where the xn (0) are the components of ψ(0) the initial condition of ψ at
the instant t = 0

1.2 Probability density and probability current

The wave function associated to the particle appeared at first just as a mathe-
matical artifact, in order to solve for the possible values for the energy E. And
then by Planck formula to find the frequency of the possible spectra. Even
Schrodinger himself didn’t know about the meaning of his wave function ψ.
The now accepted interpretation of ψ was given afterwards By Max Born, as
a probability amplitude, which means that the modulus square of ψ gives a
probability density of finding the particle at some place in space.
We will see in next chapter and more general formalism to compute the
probabilities of any other possible observable, and not only the position of the
particle.
here we can define the probability density
ρ(t, x) = |ψ(t, x)|2
And we can define the probability current (the instantaneous flow of the
probability).    
d
J = Re ψ̄ −iℏ ψ
dx
This definition is justified by the following exercise, which affirms the conserva-
tion of probability by the flow J

Exercice Prove the continuity equation that represents probability con-

servation.
dρ
+ div(J) = 0
dt

2 Schrodinger equations and applications

2.1 Step potential
ℏ2 d 2
 
− + V (x) ψ = Eψ (6)
2m dx2
In other words we want to solve the equation
2m
ψ ′′ (x) = 2 (E − V (x))ψ (7)
ℏ
Under some suitable boundary conditions.
We will observe that for different expression of the potential V (x) we will
encounter different solutions and different physical phenomena.

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Continuity of ψ we admit the mathematical result that if V (x) is of bounded
variations, then both ψ and ψ ′ are continuous. where if V (x) take infinite values,
then only ψ is continuous.

2.2 Potential step

Let’s consider the potential barrier
(
0 for x < 0
V (x) =
V0 for x > 0

With V0 > 0

2.3 classical mechanics

if we send a classical free particle towards a potential wall with a kinetic energy
E, there are two possibilities:
• Either E < V0 , thne the particle hasn’t enough energy to traverse the
barrier, and it will be reflected.
• V > E0 , it will pass the barrier, and its kinetic energy will diminish by
V0 . so the energy of the detected particle beyond the barrier is

E ′ = E − V0

2.4 The quantum particle

If we consider a quantum particle then its state is described by a wave function
that its motion is governed by the Schrodinger equation.
As in the classical case, we will also distinguish between two cases, as for
the value of the energy E.
(
V (x) = 0 for x < 0
(8)
V (x) = V0 > 0 for x ≥ 0
Let’s denote √
2mE
k :=
ℏ

Case1: E < V0 .
Let’s put p
2m(V0 − E)
q=
ℏ
The general form of the solution is given by
(
αeikx + βe−ikx x ¡ 0
ψ(x) =
γe−qx for x ≥ 0

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 We omitted the term eqx because it explodes for big values of x, which
contradicts the boundedness of ψ as interpreted as a probability amplitude.
Since the solution is defined up to a constant (if ψ is a solution, so is cψ for
any complex number c).
We can set the constant α = 1. and it remains to determine the values of β and
γ.
By continuity conditions

1+β =γ ik(1 − β) = −qβ

which means that

k − iq
β=
k + iq
The coefficient β is accorded to the reflected wave represented by the term
e−kx , its modulus square can interpreted as the probability of reflection, we can
verify that |β|2 = 1, Hence as in the classical case, the probability of reflection
is 1.

Case 2: E > V0
We set p
2m(E − V0 )
q=
ℏ
The general solution is given by
(
αeikx + βe−ikx x¡0
ψ(x) =
γeiqx + δe−iqx x ≥0

Since multiplication by a constant transform a solution into a solution, then we

can set α = 1. We can also consider that there is no wave coming from x = ∞,
so we set the constant δ = 0 (no wave of the form e−qx ).
By continuity conditions we obtain

1+β =γ k(1 − β) = qγ

And we obtain
k−q 2k
β= γ=
k+q k+q

3 Tunneling Effect
Classically if a particle energy is less than the maximum potential that should
traverse, it is impossible for it to be transmitted to other side, yet taking into ac-
count the wave nature of quantum mechanics, we will prove that this is possible
with some probability.

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 Let’s a be the width of the tunnel, we will consider a particle thrown into
the potential 
0
 for x < 0
V (x) = V0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ a (9)

0 for x > a


And set a particle with energy E such that E < V0 , classically the particle should
pass the potential barrier V0 , yet in quantum mechanics, the wave nature of the
particle will allow it to pass to the other side, and in many experiments this
effect was observed (alpha decay, catalyst reactions ..)
Let’s put also in this case
p
2m(V0 − E)
q=
ℏ
The general solution is given by

ikx −ikx
e + αe
 x¡0
−qx qx
ψ(x) = γe + δe 0≤x<a

 ikx
βe x≥a
By continuity conditions
( (
1+α=γ+δ γe−qa + δeqa = βeika
ik(1 − α) = q(δ − γ) q(δeqa − γe−qa ) = ikβeika

Solving this system of equations yields

4ikqe−ika
β=
(k + iq)eqa − (k − iq)e−qa
Let’s consider the case where the potential well is difficult to traverse qa >>
1. then the term e − qa becomes negligible, and we obtain after simplification

16k 2 q 2 −2qa
|β|2 ≈ e
(k 2 + q 2 )2

. So the probability of traversing the potential barrier is not null. This is what
we call tunneling effect.
This phenomenon is a wave phenomenon.
Some examples
• alpha emission
• Cold emission

• microwave radiation that passes through a pipe.

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4 Energy Quantification
In the first chapter, we saw how Niels Bohr introduced energy quantization as
a hypothesis in order to explain the hydrogen spectrum. Here we will try to
prove that the energy quantization is a consequence of the Schrodinger equation.
When the potential V is strong enough to confine the particle. How is this
possible?
Let’s look at two simple situations (toy models) of simple potentials in one
dimension.
• The infinite potential well.
• the finite potential well

4.1 Infinite potential well

The infinite potential well is given by the expression
(
0 0≤x≤L
V (x) =
∞ elsewhere

Since outside the potential well [0, L], the potential is infinite, hence this
region is forbidden for the particle. no we set the continuity condition

ψ(0) = ψ(L) = 0

.
Let’s denote √
2mE
k=
ℏ
Then the general solution can be written as

ψ(x) = A cos(kx) + B sin(kx) for 0 ≤ x ≤ L

The condition ψ(0) = 0, implies that A = 0.

The condition ψ(L) = 0 sets B sin(kx) = 0 so in order to have a non identically
vanishing solution B should be different than 0. thus

kL = nπ

for some
√
integer n ≥ 1.
So 2mE
ℏ = nLπ
. Which means that

π 2 ℏ2
E = n2
2mL2
Indeed the energy E can’t take any value, but only one from a set of discrete
possible values, Energy Qauntization!

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4.2 Finite potential well
See Exercise 3

5 Conclusion:
The Schrodinger equation is one of the most important concepts in quantum
mechanics, it can as a wave description of the behaviour of particles, predict
and explain many of the observed phenomena at the quantum level (tunneling
effect, transmission, reflection, interference and diffraction ..) and the energy
quantization.
Here is a table that gives the energy quantization for the most important
known potentials.

The potential The energy levels

infinite well En = Cn2
R
Hydrogen atom V (r) = − kr En = − n2y
The harmonic oscillator V (r) = x2 En = n + 21

Table 1: Energy quantization for some potentials