1.

Introduction to Chemistry and Laboratory Safety

1.1 Definition and Scope of Chemistry
Chemistry is the branch of science that studies the composition, structure, properties of matter, and the
changes that matter undergoes. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. The study of
chemistry is central to understanding natural processes and forms the foundation for industries such as
pharmaceuticals, metallurgy, agriculture, and plastics processing.

1.2 The Bunsen Burner

The Bunsen burner is a primary heating apparatus in the laboratory. It relies on the combustion of
laboratory gas (mainly liquefied petroleum gas or methane) mixed with varying amounts of air.
[Image of a Bunsen burner showing the barrel, collar, air hole, jet, and base]
● The Luminous Flame: Generated when the air hole is completely closed. Combustion is
incomplete due to insufficient oxygen supply. Unburnt carbon particles are heated to
incandescence, emitting a bright yellow light. This flame is wavy, produces soot, and is thermally
inefficient.
● The Non-Luminous Flame: Generated when the air hole is fully open. Combustion is complete
because the gas mixes thoroughly with oxygen. The flame is blue, steady, does not produce soot,
and is extremely hot. It features three distinct zones: the outermost zone (complete combustion),
the middle green-blue zone (hottest zone), and the innermost cool zone containing unburnt gas.

2. Simple Classification of Substances and Separation

Techniques
2.1 States of Matter and Kinetic Theory
Matter exists in three primary physical states: Solid, Liquid, and Gas. Transitions between these states are
governed by the addition or removal of thermal energy, which directly influences the kinetic energy of the
constituent particles.
● Solids: Particles are densely and systematically packed in a fixed lattice. They vibrate about fixed
positions due to powerful intermolecular forces. Solids possess a definite shape and volume.
● Liquids: Particles are close together but lack a fixed arrangement. They move past one another
randomly. Liquids have a definite volume but take the shape of their container.
● Gases: Particles are widely separated and move rapidly and randomly in all directions.
Intermolecular forces are negligible. Gases lack both definite shape and volume.

2.2 Physical Separation Processes

Mixtures consist of two or more substances physically combined without chemical bonds. They can be
separated into pure components using physical techniques based on differences in physical properties:
Separation Technique Physical Property Utilized Practical
Industrial/Laboratory
Example

Fractional Distillation Differences in close boiling Separation of crude oil fractions

points of miscible liquids. or refining of ethanol from
fermentation mixtures.

Paper Chromatography Differences in solute solubility Separation of complex ink dyes

and adsorption onto a stationary or identifying banned
phase. performance drugs in blood
samples.

Sublimation Direct transition from solid to Isolating iodine or ammonium

gas without passing through the chloride from mixtures
liquid phase. containing sodium chloride.

Crystallization Differences in temperature- Extraction of common salt from

dependent solute solubility. seawater or manufacturing pure
sugar crystals.

3. Acids, Bases, and Chemical Indicators

3.1 Action of Indicators
An indicator is a complex organic dye that exhibits distinct color variations depending on the hydrogen
ion ($\text{H}^+$) or hydroxyl ion ($\text{OH}^-$) concentration in a solution. The pH scale ranges
from 0 to 14, providing a logarithmic measure of acidity or alkalinity.
● Strong Acids (pH 0–3): Fully ionize in aqueous solution to yield a high concentration of $\
text{H}^+$ ions (e.g., $\text{HCl, H}_2\text{SO}_4$).
● Weak Acids (pH 4–6): Only partially ionize in aqueous solution (e.g., $\text{CH}_3\text{COOH}
$).
● Strong Bases (pH 12–14): Fully dissociate to yield a high concentration of $\text{OH}^-$ ions
(e.g., $\text{NaOH, KOH}$).
● Weak Bases (pH 8–11): Partially ionize in solution (e.g., $\text{NH}_4\text{OH}$).

3.2 Standard Chemical Properties of Acids

1. Reaction with Metals: Acids react with metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series to produce
a salt and Hydrogen gas. $$\text{Zn}_{(s)} + 2\text{HCl}_{(aq)} \longrightarrow \
text{ZnCl}_{2(aq)} + \text{H}_{2(g)}$$
2. Reaction with Carbonates and Hydrogencarbonates: Produces a salt, water, and Carbon (IV)
Oxide gas. $$\text{CaCO}_{3(s)} + 2\text{HNO}_{3(aq)} \longrightarrow \
text{Ca(NO}_3)_{2(aq)} + \text{H}_2\text{O}_{(l)} + \text{CO}_{2(g)}$$
3. Neutralization Reaction: Reaction with bases/metal oxides to form a salt and water only. $$\
text{CuO}_{(s)} + \text{H}_2\text{SO}_{4(aq)} \longrightarrow \text{CuSO}_{4(aq)} + \
text{H}_2\text{O}_{(l)}$$
4. Carbon and its Compounds
4.1 Allotropy of Carbon
Allotropy is the existence of an element in two or more distinct physical forms in the same physical state
without a change in chemical composition. Carbon possesses two primary crystalline allotropes:
● Diamond: Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms in a rigid three-
dimensional tetrahedral arrangement. This structure lacks free, delocalized electrons, making
diamond a non-conductor of electricity. The tightly locked covalent bonds make diamond the
hardest known natural substance.
● Graphite: Each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms, forming hexagonal planar
sheets arranged in layers held together by weak van der Waals forces. The fourth valency electron
remains free and delocalized within the layers, allowing graphite to conduct electricity efficiently.
The layers easily slide past one another, making graphite soft and useful as a dry lubricant.

4.2 Oxides of Carbon

Carbon (IV) Oxide ($\text{CO}_2$): Prepared in the laboratory by reacting dilute hydrochloric acid
with calcium carbonate marble chips. It is a colorless, odorless gas that does not support combustion. It is
denser than air and turns clear lime water ($\text{Ca(OH)}_2$) turbid due to the formation of an
insoluble white precipitate of calcium carbonate.
$$\text{CO}_{2(g)} + \text{Ca(OH)}_{2(aq)} \longrightarrow \text{CaCO}_{3(s)} + \text{H}_2\
text{O}_{(l)}$$
Carbon (II) Oxide ($\text{CO}$): Formed through incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuels. It is a
highly toxic, colorless, and odorless gas. When inhaled, it combines with blood hemoglobin to form
stable **carboxyhemoglobin**, preventing oxygen transport and leading to rapid asphyxiation. It acts as
a powerful reducing agent in metallurgy, such as in the extraction of iron in the blast furnace.

5. Behavior of Gases (Gas Laws)

5.1 Boyle's Law
Boyle's Law states that the volume ($V$) of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure
($P$), provided the temperature remains constant.
$$V \propto \frac{1}{P} \implies PV = k \implies P_1V_1 = P_2V_2$$

5.2 Charles's Law

Charles's Law states that the volume ($V$) of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature ($T$) measured on the Kelvin scale, provided the pressure remains constant.
$$V \propto T \implies \frac{V}{T} = k \implies \frac{V_1}{T_1} = \frac{V_2}{T_2}$$
*Note:* Always convert temperature from degrees Celsius to Kelvin by adding 273 ($K = ^\circ\text{C}
+ 273$).

5.3 The Combined Gas Law

By integrating Boyle’s and Charles’s laws, the relationships for pressure, volume, and temperature can be
combined into a single expression for a fixed mass of gas:
$$\frac{P_1V_1}{T_1} = \frac{P_2V_2}{T_2}$$
1. Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table
1.1 Subatomic Particles and Atomic Parameters
An atom is the smallest electrically neutral particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction.
It consists of a dense central core termed the nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons localized within
specific energy levels (shells).
 Protons: Positively charged subatomic particles localized within the nucleus, possessing a relative
mass of 1 and a charge of +1. The number of protons defines the Atomic Number ($Z$) of an
element.
 Neutrons: Uncharged neutral particles within the nucleus, possessing a relative mass of 1 and a
charge of 0. The combined sum of protons and neutrons defines the Mass Number ($A$) or
Nucleon Number.
 Electrons: Negatively charged particles orbiting the nucleus within designated energy levels,
possessing a negligible relative mass ($\frac{1}{1840}$) and a charge of -1.
$$\text{Mass Number (A)} = \text{Number of Protons (Z)} + \text{Number of Neutrons (N)}$$

1.2 Isotopy
Isotopy is the existence of atoms of the same element with the identical atomic number (same number of
protons) but completely varying mass numbers (different number of neutrons). Isotopes exhibit identical
chemical properties because they share the same electronic configuration, but display varying physical
properties due to mass discrepancies.
The Relative Atomic Mass ($RAM$) is the weighted average mass of an atom of an element compared
to $\frac{1}{12}$th the mass of an atom of Carbon-12. It is calculated by taking into account the
percentage isotopic abundance:
$$RAM = \sum \left( \frac{\% \text{ Abundance}}{100} \times \text{Isotopic Mass} \right)$$

1.3 The Periodic Table Trends

Elements are arranged systematically in order of increasing atomic number. Vertical columns represent
**Groups** (elements share the same number of valence electrons), and horizontal rows represent
**Periods** (elements share the same number of occupied energy levels).
Periodic Trend Directional Behavior Across a Period Directional Behavior Down a Group
Property

Atomic Radius Decreases. Nuclear charge increases Increases. Additional occupied energy
while electrons are added to the same levels are added sequentially, shielding
shell, pulling orbits closer. outer electrons.

Ionization Energy Increases. Higher nuclear attraction Decreases. Valence electrons are
makes it difficult to dislodge a valence localized further from the nucleus,
electron. weakening electro-static pull.

Electronegativity Increases. The capacity of the nucleus to Decreases. Increased shielding limits
 Periodic Trend Directional Behavior Across a Period Directional Behavior Down a Group
Property

attract a shared pair of bonding electrons the nucleus's electron-attracting power.

escalates.

2. Chemical Bonding and Structure

2.1 Ionic (Electrovalent) Bonding
Occurs when a metallic element transfers one or more valence electrons completely to a non-metallic
element to attain a stable noble gas electronic configuration (octet/duplet rule). This produces positively
charged ions (**cations**) and negatively charged ions (**anions**) held together by powerful
electrostatic forces of attraction termed ionic bonds.
$$\text{Na } (2.8.1) \longrightarrow \text{Na}^+ (2.8) + \text{e}^-$$
$$\text{Cl } (2.8.7) + \text{e}^- \longrightarrow \text{Cl}^- (2.8.8)$$
Ionic compounds form massive giant ionic crystal lattices. Consequently, they possess high melting and
boiling points and conduct electricity strictly in molten or aqueous states when ions are mobile, but act as
insulators in the solid state.

2.2 Covalent Bonding

Occurs through the mutual sharing of valence electrons between non-metallic atoms. Covalent substances
are divided into two structural categories:
 Simple Molecular Structures: Molecules are held together internally by robust covalent bonds,
but independent molecules interact via weak intermolecular van der Waals forces. They have low
melting/boiling points and are non-conductors of electricity (e.g., $\text{I}_2, \text{H}_2\text{O,
CO}_2$).
 Giant Covalent Structures: Network structures where every atom is covalently linked throughout
a massive network (e.g., Diamond, Graphite, $\text{SiO}_2$). They display extraordinarily high
melting points.

3. Salts and Qualitative Analysis

A salt is an ionic compound formed when the replaceable hydrogen ions of an acid are completely or
partially replaced by a metallic ion or an ammonium ion.

3.1 Solubility Rules of Salts

Mastering the qualitative solubility limits of salts is critical for predicting precipitation outcomes during
synthesis reactions:
1. All Sodium, Potassium, and Ammonium salts are completely soluble.
2. All Nitrates are completely soluble.
3. All Chlorides are soluble except Silver Chloride ($\text{AgCl}$) and Lead (II) Chloride ($\
text{PbCl}_2$, which dissolves strictly in hot water).
4. All Sulphates are soluble except Barium Sulphate ($\text{BaSO}_4$), Lead Sulphate ($\
text{PbSO}_4$), and Calcium Sulphate ($\text{CaSO}_4$, which is partially soluble).
5. All Carbonates are completely insoluble except $\text{Na}_2\text{CO}_3, \text{K}_2\
text{CO}_3,$ and $(\text{NH}_4)_2\text{CO}_3$.
3.2 Methods of Salt Preparation
 Direct Precipitation (Double Decomposition): Used exclusively to prepare insoluble salts. Two
soluble salt solutions are mixed together to yield an insoluble precipitate, which is subsequently
isolated via filtration, washed with distilled water, and dried. $$\text{BaCl}_{2(aq)} + \
text{Na}_2\text{SO}_{4(aq)} \longrightarrow \text{BaSO}_{4(s)} + 2\text{NaCl}_{(aq)}$$
 Action of an Acid on an Insoluble Base, Metal, or Carbonate: Used to prepare soluble salts.
The acid is reacted with an excess of the solid to ensure all acid is neutralized. The unreacted
excess solid is filtered out, and the filtrate is heated to saturation and allowed to cool to form
crystals.

Comprehensive High School Chemistry

Reference Manual: Volume 3
This document serves as the third and final volume of the exhaustive chemistry reference manual.
Volume 3 provides a mathematically and operationally rigorous treatment of Stoichiometry (The Mole
Concept), Industrial Extractions, and Organic Chemistry Chemistry Systems.

1. Stoichiometry and the Mole Concept

1.1 Fundamental Mole Calculations
The mole is the SI unit for amount of substance. One mole contains exactly $6.02 \times 10^{23}$
elementary entities (atoms, molecules, or ions)—a value defined as Avogadro's Constant ($L$).
 Converting Mass to Moles: $$\text{Number of Moles } (n) = \frac{\text{Mass in Grams }(m)}{\
text{Molar Mass }(M)}$$
 Gas Volume Conversions (Molar Gas Volume): One mole of any gas occupies $22.4\
text{ dm}^3$ at Standard Temperature and Pressure (S.T.P.) or $24.0\text{ dm}^3$ at Room
Temperature and Pressure (R.T.P.). $$\text{Number of Moles } (n) = \frac{\text{Volume of Gas}}
{\text{Molar Gas Volume }(V_m)}$$
 Molarity of Solutions: Molarity ($M$) is the concentration of a solution expressed in moles per
cubic decimeter ($\text{mol}\cdot\text{dm}^{-3}$). $$\text{Molarity } (M) = \frac{\text{Number
of Moles of Solute}}{\text{Volume of Solution in }\text{dm}^3}$$

1.2 Volumetric Analysis (Titration Mechanics)

During an acid-base neutralization titration, the stoichiometry of the reacting species can be determined
via the balancing ratio equation:
$$\frac{M_a V_a}{M_b V_b} = \frac{n_a}{n_b}$$
Where $M_a, M_b$ represent molarities of acid and base, $V_a, V_b$ represent volumes used, and $n_a,
n_b$ represent reacting mole ratios derived from the balanced stoichiometric chemical equation.

2. Industrial Extraction of Metals

2.1 Extraction of Iron (The Blast Furnace)
Iron is extracted primarily from its main ore, Hematite ($\text{He}_2\text{O}_3$), inside a blast
furnace. The raw inputs fed from the top include the iron ore, Coke (Carbon), and Limestone ($\
text{CaCO}_3$).
[Image of a blast furnace showing the inputs of ore, coke, and limestone, the reduction zones, and
outputs of molten iron and slag]
1. Production of Carbon (IV) Oxide: Coke burns in hot blasts of air injected from the bottom, an
exothermic reaction that drives furnace temperatures up to $1600^\circ\text{C}$. $$\text{C}_{(s)}
+ \text{O}_{2(g)} \longrightarrow \text{CO}_{2(g)}$$
2. Production of the Reducing Agent (Carbon II Oxide): The rising $\text{CO}_2$ gas reacts
with excess falling incandescent coke to produce Carbon (II) oxide. $$\text{CO}_{2(g)} + \
text{C}_{(s)} \longrightarrow 2\text{CO}_{(g)}$$
3. Reduction of Hematite: Carbon (II) Oxide reduces the iron ore to molten iron, which sinks to the
bottom of the furnace. $$\text{Fe}_2\text{O}_{3(s)} + 3\text{CO}_{(g)} \longrightarrow 2\
text{Fe}_{(l)} + 3\text{CO}_{2(g)}$$
4. Slag Formation (Removal of Impurities): Limestone thermally decomposes into Calcium Oxide
and $\text{CO}_2$. The Calcium Oxide (a basic oxide) reacts with silica impurities ($\
text{SiO}_2$, an acidic oxide) to form liquid Slag ($\text{CaSiO}_3$), which floats on top of the
molten iron and prevents it from re-oxidizing. $$\text{CaCO}_{3(s)} \longrightarrow \
text{CaO}_{(s)} + \text{CO}_{2(g)}$$ $$\text{CaO}_{(s)} + \text{SiO}_{2(s)} \
longrightarrow \text{CaSiO}_{3(l)}$$

3. Organic Chemistry Fundamentals

Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds. Carbon is uniquely characterized by its capacity to
catenate—link together covalently to form long, stable chains and rings.

3.1 Homologous Series Dynamics

A homologous series is a family of organic compounds that share the same general formula, identical
functional groups, display a regular gradation in physical properties (such as boiling points), and share
identical methods of chemical preparation.
Homologous General Formula Nature of Functional Group / Chemical
Series Properties

Alkanes $\text{C}_n\text{H}_{2n+2}$ Saturated hydrocarbons containing only

single $\text{C}-\text{C}$ bonds. They
undergo Substitution Reactions under
UV light.

Alkenes $\text{C}_n\text{H}_{2n}$ Unsaturated hydrocarbons containing at

least one $\text{C}=\text{C}$ double
bond. They undergo rapid Addition
Reactions (e.g., decoloring brown
bromine water instantly).

Alkanols $\text{C}_n\text{H}_{2n+1}\text{OH}$ Contains the Hydroxyl group ($-\

(Alcohols) text{OH}$). They react with sodium metal
to liberate Hydrogen gas and condense
with organic acids to form fragrant
 Homologous General Formula Nature of Functional Group / Chemical
Series Properties

**Esters**.

Alkanoic $\text{C}_n\text{H}_{2n+1}\text{COOH} Contains the Carboxyl functional group

Acids $ ($-\text{COOH}$). They display weak
acidic characteristics, turning blue litmus
paper red and effervescing with
carbonates.

3.2 Polymerization Mechanics

Polymerization is the chemical process where small repeating molecular units termed monomers link
together covalently under high pressure and temperature to build massive macromolecular structures
known as polymers.
 Addition Polymerization: Unsaturated monomers containing double bonds link together without
the loss of any secondary atom or small molecule. Example: Ethene polymerizing to form
Polyethene (polythene plastic). $$n(\text{CH}_2=\text{CH}_2) \longrightarrow -[-\text{CH}_2-\
text{CH}_2-]-_n$$
 Condensation Polymerization: Monomers containing distinct functional groups react together to
form a polymer chain accompanied by the elimination of a small stable molecule, typically water
or hydrogen chloride. Examples include Nylon-6,6 and Terylene.

Comprehensive High School Chemistry

Reference Manual: Volume 4 (Practicals
& Sample Questions)
This document serves as the fourth volume of the exhaustive chemistry reference manual. Volume 4
provides a hands-on, rigorous treatment of laboratory practicals, qualitative and quantitative analysis
protocols, and sample examination questions with detailed marking schemas.

1. Quantitative Analysis: Titration Practicals

1.1 Procedure for Acid-Base Titration
Titration is used to determine the exact concentration of an unknown solution by reacting it with a
standard solution of known concentration. The absolute baseline requirement for an accurate titration is a
consistent technique during measurement and delivery.
 Apparatus Preparation: Rinse the burette with the acid solution and fill it to the 0.00 cm³ mark,
ensuring the jet is free of air bubbles. Rinse the pipette with the basic solution and transfer exactly
25.0 cm³ into a clean conical flask.
  Indicator Selection: Add 2–3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator to the conical flask. The solution
turns pink in the presence of a base. Titrate against the acid from the burette until the solution turns
permanently colorless at the exact end-point.

1.2 Sample Titration Data Table

Results must be recorded immediately in a structured table during the examination. Readings must be
recorded consistently to two decimal places, ending in either 0 or 5.
Titration Number Trial First (1st) Second (2nd) Third (3rd)
(Rough)

Final Burette Reading (cm³) 24.50 24.10 24.00 24.10

Initial Burette Reading (cm³) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Volume of Acid Used (Titre) (cm³) 24.50 24.10 24.00 24.10

Calculating Average Titre Volume: Only consistent titres within a range of $\pm0.10\text{ cm}^3$ are
averaged. The trial value is excluded from the final calculation.
$$\text{Average Titre} = \frac{24.10 + 24.00 + 24.10}{3} = 24.067\text{ cm}^3$$

2. Qualitative Analysis: Ion Identification Protocols

2.1 Testing for Cations ($\text{Na}^+, \text{Ca}^{2+}, \text{Al}^{3+}, \
text{Zn}^{2+}, \text{Fe}^{2+}, \text{Fe}^{3+}, \text{Cu}^{2+}$)
Cations are identified by observing the precipitation patterns that form when the sample solution reacts
systematically with dilute Sodium Hydroxide ($\text{NaOH}$) and Aqueous Ammonia ($\text{NH}_3$).
Cating Under Test Effect of Adding Dilute NaOH Effect of Adding Aqueous Ammonia
(Few Drops $\rightarrow$ Excess) (Few Drops $\rightarrow$ Excess)

Zinc ($\text{Zn}^{2+} White precipitate, soluble in excess White precipitate, soluble in excess to
$) to form a colorless solution. form a colorless solution.

Aluminum ($\ White precipitate, soluble in excess White precipitate, insoluble in excess.
text{Al}^{3+}$) to form a colorless solution.

Calcium ($\ White precipitate, insoluble in No precipitate forms.

text{Ca}^{2+}$) excess.

Copper ($\ Blue precipitate, insoluble in excess. Blue precipitate, dissolves in excess to
text{Cu}^{2+}$) form a deep blue solution.

Iron (II) ($\ Dirty green precipitate, insoluble in Dirty green precipitate, insoluble in
text{Fe}^{2+}$) excess. excess.

Iron (III) ($\ Brown precipitate, insoluble in Brown precipitate, insoluble in excess.
text{Fe}^{3+}$) excess.
2.2 Testing for Anions ($\text{CO}_3^{2-}, \text{SO}_4^{2-}, \
text{Cl}^-, \text{NO}_3^-$)
 Carbonate ($\text{CO}_3^{2-}$): Add dilute nitric acid ($\text{HNO}_3$). Effervescence
occurs, liberating a gas ($\text{CO}_2$) that turns clear lime water turbid.
 Sulphate ($\text{SO}_4^{2-}$): Add dilute nitric acid followed by a few drops of Barium Nitrate
solution ($\text{Ba(NO}_3)_2$). A dense white precipitate of Barium Sulphate forms, which is
insoluble in the acid. $$\text{Ba}^{2+}_{(aq)} + \text{SO}_{4(aq)}^{2-} \longrightarrow \
text{BaSO}_{4(s)}$$
 Chloride ($\text{Cl}^-$): Add dilute nitric acid followed by a few drops of Silver Nitrate solution
($\text{AgNO}_3$). A white precipitate of Silver Chloride forms, which dissolves readily upon
adding aqueous ammonia.

3. High-Weight Sample Questions and Marking

Schema
3.1 Sample Question 1: Stoichiometry & Gas Laws
Question: $2.4\text{ g}$ of magnesium ribbon was reacted completely with excess dilute hydrochloric
acid at $25^\circ\text{C}$ and $1\text{ atmosphere}$ pressure. Calculate the total volume of Hydrogen
gas produced in cubic decimeters ($\text{dm}^3$). ($\text{Mg}=24.0$, Molar Gas Volume at R.T.P. $=
24.0\text{ dm}^3$).

Step-by-Step Marking Schema:

1. Write the balanced chemical equation: $$\text{Mg}_{(s)} + 2\text{HCl}_{(aq)} \

longrightarrow \text{MgCl}_{2(aq)} + \text{H}_{2(g)} \quad \text{[1 Mark]}$$
2. Calculate the number of moles of Magnesium used: $$\text{Moles of Mg} = \frac{\
text{Mass}}{\text{Molar Mass}} = \frac{2.4\text{ g}}{24.0\text{ g/mol}} = 0.1\text{ moles} \
quad \text{[1 Mark]}$$
3. Determine the mole ratio from the equation: $$\text{Mole ratio of Mg} : \text{H}_2 = 1 : 1 \
implies \text{Moles of H}_2 \text{ produced} = 0.1\text{ moles} \quad \text{[1 Mark]}$$
4. Convert moles of Hydrogen to volume at R.T.P.: $$\text{Volume} = \text{Moles} \times \
text{Molar Gas Volume} = 0.1 \times 24.0\text{ dm}^3 = 2.4\text{ dm}^3 \quad \text{[1 Mark]}$
$
Total Score Allocation: 4 Marks

3.2 Sample Question 2: Organic Chemistry Structure

Question: An organic hydrocarbon compound contains $85.7\%$ Carbon and $14.3\%$ Hydrogen by
mass. If its relative molecular mass is 42, deduce its empirical formula and its molecular formula. ($\
text{C}=12.0, \text{H}=1.0$).

Step-by-Step Marking Schema:

$$\begin{aligned} \text{Elements:} & \quad \text{C} & \quad \text{H} \\ \text{Percentage mass:} & \
quad 85.7\% & \quad 14.3\% \\ \text{Divide by RAM (Moles):} & \quad \frac{85.7}{12} = 7.14 & \
quad \frac{14.3}{1} = 14.3 \quad \text{[1 Mark]} \\ \text{Divide by the smallest value:} & \quad \
frac{7.14}{7.14} = 1 & \quad \frac{14.3}{7.14} = 2 \quad \text{[1 Mark]} \end{aligned}$$
  Empirical Formula: $\text{CH}_2 \quad \text{[1 Mark]}$
 Deducing the Molecular Formula: $$\text{(Empirical Formula)}_n = \text{Relative Molecular
Mass}$$ $$(\text{CH}_2)_n = 42 \implies (12 + 2)_n = 42 \implies 14n = 42 \implies n = 3 \quad \
text{[1 Mark]}$$ $$\text{Molecular Formula} = (\text{CH}_2)_3 = \text{C}_3\text{H}_6 \quad \
text{[1 Mark]}$$
Total Score Allocation: 5 Marks