CHAPTER 12

WATER METERS, INSTRUMENTATION, TELEMETRY & SCADA

12.1 WATER METERS
12.1.1 INTRODUCTION
A water meter is a scientific instrument for accurate measurement of quantity of water distributed to the consumers. It also fulfils the need to know accurately the water produced and distributed. It differs from flow meter in respect of the following points. 1. 2. 3. 4. It is a quantity meter and not a flow rate meter. Water meter is a mechanical device whereas flow meter may be a mechanical or an electronic device. Water meter is always specified in two accuracies i.e. lower range and upper range accuracies whereas a flow meter it is specified in a single range accuracy. The upper range and lower range accuracies are 2% and 5% of the actual quantity respectively for the water meter whereas it is variable for flow meter as per the customers requirement. Importance is not given for repeatability and linearity in the case of water meter whereas importance is given in the case of flow meter.

5.

Water meters having sizes from 15 mm to 50 mm as per BIS 779 are considered to be domestic water meters and sizes from 50 mm and above as per BIS 2373 are considered to be Bulk Water Meters. Water meters are classified according to the operating principle, type of end connections, the standard by which the same are covered, constructional features, method of coupling between the counter and primary sensor, the metrological characteristics etc. (Table 12.1)

12.1.2 SIZING OF WATER METERS

Sizing of water meter is done keeping in view the guidelines given in Indian standard IS 2401 and ISO 4064 part-II. In general main considerations are as follows: 1. 2. 3. Water meter has to be selected according to the flow to be measured and not necessarily to suit a certain size of water main. The maximum flow shall not exceed the maximum flow rating. The nominal flow shall not be greater than the nominal flow rating.

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CLASSIFICATION OF WATER METER BASED ON

Constructional Features Metrological Characteristics Domestic Meter as per IS 779 Bulk Meter as per IS 2373 Available from size 50 mm and above Classes A to D as per ISO 4064 Consumer Category

Operating Principle

Semi positive or Piston or Volumetric Multi Jet Available from 15 mm to 300 mm as per ISO Advantages:

Inferential or Velocity or Turbine

Vane Wheel or Fan Type

Available in C&D classes as per ISO 4064

Single Jet

Available from 15 mm to 50 mm as per IS 779 and 15 mm to 100 mm as per ISO 4064

Classes A&B as per BIS 779

Advantages: 1. Most sensitive 2. Less sensitive to flow disturbances

Advantages:

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Disadvantages: 1. More costly than that of single jet 2. More pressure loss

Disadvantages:

1. Simple & less complicated 2. The cheapest 3. Less loss of pressure

Available upto size 50 mm Screwed connection Body with Brass of Bronze or Plastic Available in Class A & B in IS Flanged connections Body: cast or steel Not available in classes in IS

1. Water must be free from solid dirt particles 2. Difficult to maintain 3. Difficult to calibrate 4. Failure of rotating part causes failure of water flow through the meter

Disadvantages:

1. Sensitive to flow disturbances 2. Requires specialized calibration as external regulator is not available 3. Not sustained in hostile flow conditions.

1. Less sensitive to flow disturbances 2. Can sustain hostile flow conditions 3. External regulator facilitates easy calibration 4. Easy maintenance

1. Wet dial meter 2. Dry dial meter 3. Mechanically coupled Woltman or meter Helical Type 4. Magnetically coupled Available from meter 5. Straight reading 50 mm to 500 cyclometer mm as per BIS 6. Multi pointer meter and 50 mm to (Analogue type) 800 mm as 7. Combination of per ISO Cyclometer & pointer Advantages: Advantages of 1. Suitable for mechanical coupled higher flows 1. Not affected by external magnetic field. 2. Less Disadvantages: pressure 1. Bush leak problems loss 2. Air escape hole create 3. Robust problem during construction submergence. 4. E x t e r n a l 3. Available in class A and internal only regulators Advantages of Disadvantages: Magnetically Coupled: 1. Available in Class A as 1. Approach well as Class B conditioning 2. More sensitive piping is 3. No condensation of required water in resister 2. Not Disadvantages: available in 1. Temperable with metrological external magnetic field. classes in 2. In intermittent supply BIS. Limited high temperature of to higher water may damage the properties of the magnet. flows.

4. 5.

The minimum flow to be measured shall be within the minimum starting flow of the meter. Low head loss, long operating flow range, less bulky and robust meter shall be preferred.

12.1.3 INSTALLATION OF WATER METERS

In order to ensure proper working of the meters, BIS has given guidelines in IS-2401 of 1973 for their installation as per the drawing given in it. At the same time following guidelines should be borne in mind while installing the meters. 1. 2. The water meter being a delicate instrument shall be handled with great care. Rough handling including jerks or fall is likely to damage it and affects its accuracy. The meter shall be installed at a spot where it is readily accessible. To avoid damages and over run of the meter due to intermittent water supply system, it is always advisable to install the meter, so that the top of the meter is below the level of the communication pipes so that meters always contains water, when there is no supply in the line. Also, the minimum straight length condition as per the drawing shall be observed. 3. The meter shall preferably be housed in a chamber with a lid for protection; it should never be buried underground nor installed in the open nor under a water tap so that water may not directly fall on the meter. It should be installed inside inspection pits, built out of bricks or concrete and covered with lid. It should not be suspended. The meter shall be so installed that the longitudinal axis is horizontal and the flow of water should be in the direction shown by the arrow cast on body. Before connecting the meter to the water pipe, it should be thoroughly cleaned by installing in the place of the water meter a pipe of suitable length and diameter and letting the passage of a fair amount of water flow through the pipe work to avoid formation of air pockets. It is advisable that the level of the pipeline where the meter is proposed to be installed should be checked by a spirit level. Before fitting the meter to the pipeline check the unions nuts in the tail pieces and then insert the washers. Thereafter screw the tail pieces on the pipes and install the meter in between the nuts by screwing. In order to avoid its rotation during the operation, the meter should be kept fixed with suitable non metallic clamps. Care should be taken that the washer does not obstruct the inlet and outlet flow of water. The protective lid should normally be kept closed and should be opened only for reading the dial. The meter shall not run with free discharge to atmosphere. Some resistance should be given in the down side of the meter if static pressure on the main exceeds 10 m head. A meter shall be located where it is not liable to get severe shock of water hammer which might break the system of the meter.

4. 5.

6.

7. 8.

9.

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10. Owing to the fine clearance in the working parts of the meters they are not suitable for measuring water containing sand or similar foreign matter and in such cases a filter or dirt box of adequate effective area shall be fitted on the upstream side of the meter. It should be noted that the normal strainer fitted inside a meter is not a filter and does not prevent the entry of small particles, such as sand. 11. Where intermittent supply is likely to be encountered the meter may be provided with a suitable air valve before the meter in order to reduce inaccuracy and to protect the meter from being damaged. At higher altitude, if meter is installed as above the problem will be eliminated.

12.1.4 TESTING AND CALIBRATION OF WATER METERS

1 . The testing & calibration of a water meter is essential before putting it into use as it is a statutory requirement. It is also essential to test it periodically in order to ascertain its performance as during the course of meter working it is likely that its accuracy of measurement may deteriorate beyond acceptable limits. 2 . A meter suspected to be malfunctioning is also tested for its accuracy of measurement. The testing is done as per IS6784/ISO4064 part III. A faulty meter if found to be repairable, is repaired and tested and calibrated for its accuracy before installation. The metering accuracy testing is carried out at Qmin, Qt & Qmax. separately. Where : Qmin : Lowest flow rate at which the meter is required to give indication within the maximum permissible error tolerance. It is as mentioned in IS779 and is determined in terms of numerical value of meter designation in case of ISO 4064. Qt : Qn : The flow rate at which the maximum permissible error of the water meter changes in value. Half the maximum flow rate Q max.

Qmax : The higher flow rate at which the meter is required to operate in a satisfactory manner for short periods of time without deterioration. The accuracy of water meter is divided into two zones i.e. (1) Lower measurable limit in which +5% accuracy from minimum flow to transitional flow (exclusive) and (2) Upper measurable limit in which +2% accuracy from transitional flow (inclusive) to maximum flow. 3. The procedure for conducting the above test is as follows: Water meter is fixed on a test bench horizontally or vertically or in any other position for which it is designed and with the direction of flow as indicated by arrow on its body. By adjusting the position of regulating valve on upstream side, the rate of flow is adjusted. At the desired rate of flow, the difference in pressure gauge readings fitted on upstream and downstream side of water meter is noted. The flow is now stopped with regulating valve and measuring chamber is emptied and zero water levels on manometer attached to measuring chamber is correctly adjusted. Initial reading of the water meter from its recording dial is noted. Now the flow at the set rate is passed through the water meter and the discharge is collected in the measuring chamber. After passing the desired quantity of

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water through the meter, the flow is once again stopped. The discharge as recorded by measuring chamber is noted. The final reading of water meter is noted. The difference between the initial and final readings of water meter gives the discharge figure recorded by water meter. Now the discharge recorded by measuring tank is treated as ideal. The discharge recorded by water meter is compared with this ideal discharge. If the quantity recorded by water meter is more than the ideal, the meter is called running fast or vice versa. The difference in the quantity recorded by meter from ideal quantity is considered as error. This error is expressed in percentage. If the limits of error for the meter exceed as specified in the IS concerned the meter is readjusted by the regulator if it is available in the meter. A change in position of the regulating screw will displace the error curve (calibration curve) in parallel to former position. With the closing of the regulating orifice the curve will shift upward while opening the same will lower the curve. If the curve does not get into acceptable limit the meter is not used. Some of the organizations are accepting accuracy limit for repaired water meter double the value of new water meters at respective zones i.e. for upper zone accuracy is +4% & for lower zone accuracy is +10%.

12.1.5 REPAIRS, MAINTENANCE & TROUBLE SHOOTING OF WATER METERS

The water meters are mechanical devices, which normally deteriorate in performance over time. The fact that a meter does not show outward signs of any damage and has a register that appears to be turning does not mean that the meter is performing in a satisfactory way. It is necessary to ascertain the following preventive cares for water meter after proper installation. Preventive maintenance:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Proper handling, storage and transportation of water meters. To clean the dirt box or strainer wherever installed. To replace the gaskets, if any. To clean the chamber in which the meter is installed and keep free from flooding, & seepage. To remove the meter for further internal repair/replacement if it does not show correct reading pattern.

Breakdown maintenance:Replacement of broken glass, lid and fallen wiper wherever provided:These are the only basic breakdowns observed during periodical inspection. If a meter found not working, then it shall be removed immediately and sent to meter service workshop. In meter workshops normally following steps are performed to carry out the repairs. 1 . Disassembling of water meters including strainer, measuring unit, regulator, registering device, etc. 2 . Clean all disassembled spare parts in detergent solution in warm water. 3 . Inspect the cleaned parts and replace worn parts and gaskets, if any. 4 . Inspect the meter body spur threads and cover threads.

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5 . Inspect the sealing surface on meter body and paint the meter body, if necessary. 6 . Inspect the vane wheel shaft pinion, bearing & pivot. 7 . Inspect the vane wheel chamber. 8 . Reassemble the water meter properly after reconditioning. 9 . Calibrate & test the repaired water meter for leakage & accuracy as per IS 6784. 10. Make entry in the life register of that water meter for keeping history record.

TABLE 12.2 TROUBLE SHOOTING OF WATER METERS

[Link]. 1. Trouble Meter reads in reverse direction Meter not recording Continuously moving pointer/digit rotates but no change in indicator Dial/glass foggy Meter suspected to be slow or fast Cause Might have been installed in reverse direction Impeller to register link broken Pointer and drum link missing Drum defect Climatic condition Inlet flow disturbance, missing internally defective, deteriorated magnets in case of magnetic meter Remedy Check the arrow on the meter body and install the meter properly, if necessary Remove the meter for servicing and repairs Remove the meter for servicing and repairs Remove the meter for servicing and repairs Wait for climate change, if it is rainy season Clean the external filter/dirt box where provided and the in-built strainer Ensure full open condition of upstream valve. If doubt persists, remove meter for testing, servicing & repair Remove meter for testing and servicing Remove the meter and repair Remove meter for testing, servicing and repair, physical protection arrangement be made Meter is acting as a stop valve. Remove it for inspection, servicing and repair

2. 3.

4. 5.

6. 7. 8.

Bush/gland leakage Regulator, head, body leakage Physical damage to meter including broken seal No water available past the water meter even though inlet side is charged

Gland deformity Regular washer damaged, loose screw Improper installation

9.

Semi positive/positive displacement meter with jammed piston

In case of smaller size water meters, it is advisable to check cost benefit ratio before getting them repaired.

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12.1.6 PREVENTION OF TAMPERING OF WATER METERS

In order to prevent tampering, following precautions should be taken. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. The water meters, shall be installed properly in the chamber with lock and key or in the C.I. covers with lock and key in order to avoid tampering. The water meters must be sealed properly. The water meters shall not allow reversible flow; it should register flow in forward directions only. The water meter dials should be easily readable without confusions. The lid, glass of water meters must be made up of tough materials as per IS 779 and shall be replaced timely. The wiper or dial as far as possible is avoided. In case of magnetically coupled meters, the proper material to shield magnets must be provided in order to avoid the tampering of such meter by outside magnets in the vicinity of meter. Periodical inspection/checking at site is essential to ensure the proper working of meter. Special sealing arrangements may be necessary and provided for bulk meters whereby unauthorized removal of the meter from the connection can be detected.

8. 9.

Inspite of above, to tackle the problems of tampering suitable penalty provisions/clauses shall be there in the rules or the water supply agreement with the consumer. This will also discourage the consumer tendencies of neglecting water meter safety.

12.1.7 TREND OF REPLACEMENT OF WATER METERS

In general, if a water meter goes out of order due to any physical damage or non operation of registration device and is beyond economical repair it should be replaced with immediate effect. In Indian context, the performance of water meter depends upon 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. the quality of water meter produced by manufacturer and it differs from manufacturer to manufacturer. the design of pipeline & fittings in line with meter; the workmanship & care when handling and installing the meter; the pattern of water passing through the meter; the type of supply of water whether it is continuous or intermittent; the meter maintenance, testing; the proper selection of meter.

The performance of a water meter is required to be watched continuously with suitable history sheets. Any abnormality noticed needs immediate action. Timely removed faulty meter, & specially mechanical type meter, prevents cascade and cumulative damages. Looking at the amount of transactions involved, bulk meters shall be given priority in replacements. Based on the experience gained for a specification work, a well planned

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programme for periodical meter testing, servicing, repairs and replacement wherever necessary shall be designed.

12.1.8 AUTOMATIC WATER METERING SYSTEMS

Water meter is a cash register of a water supply authority. Consumption based water rates require periodic reading of meters except in remote or automated meter reading of meters. Except in remote or automated meter reading these readings are usually done by meter readers visiting consumers premises one by one and noting down the indicator reading by the meter. These readings are recorded manually in books or on cards and later keyed in manually to a customer accounting or billing system. In some cases, meter readers use Hand held Data Entry Terminals to record meter readings. Data from these devices are transferred electronically to a billing system. In other cases, key entry has been replaced by mark-sense card readers or optical scanners. The environment of meter reading usually is not favourable to the meter reader as most of the water meters are installed in underground chamber; these chambers are filled in many cases with water, reptiles or insects. Often access to these meters is also obstructed when these meters are installed in the consumers premises. Sometimes manual work is involved for opening the chamber covers. Some consumers connect their electrical earth terminal to water utility pipe which endangers the safety of meter reader. If during the meter reading visit the consumer premises are not accessible the meter reader will have to visit it again which increases the cost of meter reading. The solution to above difficulties is to install automatic system to read meters and process the results by computer. Because of development in integrated circuit technology and low powered radio trans receivers this system to some extent is simplified. The data can be captured by the meter readers from the meter in one of the following ways. 1. 2. 3. 4. Manual entry into meter books. Manual entry into portable hand held entry terminals or recorders. Direct electronic entry from meter registers either into portable data terminals or display units from which readings are transcribed in the field. Telemetry link through radio, telephone.

Remote register meters This system consists of a coiled spring mechanism wound by the register gears in the meter. A small generator is attached to the spring which trips and upwinds when the meter reaches a certain consumption increment. The spinning of generator sends an electrical pulse to the remote Display unit installed outside. This system is known as electro-mechanical remote registering. The place of this system is being taken by Electronically encoded remote registering. In this type small printed circuit boards are installed between counter wheels of meter register, wiper blades attached to the counter wheels contact discrete positions on the PCBs corresponding to meter reading digits. A small microprocessor determines the positions of the wiper blades on PCB and converts in serially coded output. Similarly non contact type opticalencoded sensing technology is also being used.

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In order to collect the data from the site Hand held Data Entry Terminal (HDET) is used. This unit consists of a programmable microprocessor based unit, with memory, key pad, display unit, and battery power supply. It has an interface part so that necessary meter reading route instructions can be down loaded to the unit from a host computer and the meter readings themselves uploaded. The meter reader follows the HDETs instructions. In a remote electronic meter reading system the output from the encoded register meter is captured through a probe attached to HDET. For reading a meter the probe is connected to a receptacle on the outside of consumers premises. Presently there are five different systems of automatic meter reading which are as follows:1. Telephone dial outbound: In this system a meter interface unit is installed on the phone line in the consumers premises. The utility begins reading by calling a central office access unit which in turn connected to meter interface unit through telephone line. This access is available through dialing i.e. the meter reading is carried out on demand. Telephone dial in bound: In this system meter interface unit dials the utilitys computer at predetermined time and transmits the latest reading. Bi directional telephone dial in/out bound. It is the combination of two earlier systems. With this system it is possible to read meters at will or to send instructions from the utility control center to meter interface unit as necessary. Cable Television: In this system at cable hardware end station on address signal is injected for Meter Interface Units (MIU). All MIUS monitor the signals and the unit corresponds to particular address respond and data is transmitted through the cable. Radio: In this system a radio frequency transmitter is installed at the meter and receiver is either located at fixed location or movable through the vehicle. The dialogues between transmitters and receivers are taking place either in predetermined time or on demand. Improvement in efficiency of meter reading. Reduced operating cost Skipping of access problems of meter reading. Estimated billing not necessary Tampering of meter can be detected. Back up to customer information services.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Some of the accrued advantages of automatic water metering are as follows:i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi)

12.1.9 RELEVANT NATIONAL & INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS

1. 2. 3. IS 779-1994 IS 2373-1981 IS : 6784 : : : Water meters (Domestic type) Specification (Sixth revision) Specifications for water meters (Bulk type) (Third revision) Testing of Water meter

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4.

BS : 5728

: : :

Measurement of water flow in close conduits, Part-I : Specifications for meters for cold potable Water Part II : Specification for installation requirements for meters Part III : Methods for determining principal characteristics of meters Measurement of water flow in close conduits, Part-I-Specification for meters for cold potable Water. Part II : Installation requirement Part III : Test methods and equipment

5.

ISO : 4064

: : :

12.2

FLOW METERS

12.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Various different methods are available for metering flow rate and total flow. Each method has its own specific characteristics, which are directed towards individual installation requirements. In water industry flow rate meter is termed as flow meter and total flow meter is termed as water meter. A wide range of standard terms are used to describe the essential performance characteristics of instruments and sensors. Some of these terms are as follows. 1. Accuracy It is defined as the difference between the reading of an instrument and the true value of the measured variable expressed as a percentage of either full scale or true value of the measured variable i.e. either in terms of full scale or flow rate of the flow meter. As far as possible the accuracy should be selected in terms of percentage of flow rate as it remains constant within the rangeability irrespective of variation in flow rate. 2. Range The difference between the maximum and minimum values of the physical output over which an instrument is designed to operate normally. 3. Rangeability/Turndown ratio Describes the relationship between the range and the minimum quantity that can be measured 4. Linearity The degree to which the calibration curve of a device matches a straight line. 5. Resolution The error associated with the ability to resolve output signal to the smallest measurable unit. 6. Repeatability The quantity which characterises the ability of a measuring instrument to give identical

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indications or responses for repeated applications of the same value of the quantity measured under stated conditions of use.

12.2.2 TYPES OF FLOW METER

In water works, normally, following types of flow meters are used. They can be classified in to: A. Differential Pressure/Head Flow Meter 1. 2. 3. 4. B. 1. Orifice Flow Meter Venturi Meter Pitot Tube Annubar (Average pitot tube) Turbine Wheel Flow Meter 2. 3. Full bore type Insertion type

Linear Flow Meter

Variable Area Flow Meter (Rotameter) Vortex Flow Meter Full bore type Insertion type Full bore or Inline type Insertion type Doppler type Transit time type

4.

Magnetic Flow Meter

5.

Ultrasonic Flow Meter

The Advantages and Disadvantages of these Flow Meters are given below. A. Differential Pressure/Head Flow Meter 1. Orifice Flow Meter Advantages i) It can be used for all fluids except some exceptions ii) No moving parts iii) Flow rate, indication, integration are easily obtained iv) It can be fitted in any configuration of pipeline v) Suitable for any pipe diameter vi) Signal can be transmitted to long distance vii) Good accuracy viii) Suitable for extreme temperature and pressure ix) Calculation possibilities for unusual situations

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Disadvantages i) Rangeability 4 : 1 ii) Energy cost in terms of head loss iii) Ideal conditions are required for good accuracy iv) Suitable for particular range of Reynolds number v) Accuracy in terms of span vi) Minimum slope for tapping piping has to be maintained i.e. 1:10 vii) Very long conditioning section required viii) Intensive maintenance required ix) Edge sharpness of the orifice must be assured. x) It requires isolation of pipeline during installation 2. Venturi Meter Advantages As mentioned under orifice meter, and less pressure loss and hence less energy cost. Disadvantages Same as under Sr. No. i, iii, iv, v, vi & x of orifice flow meter in addition to high capital cost. 3. Pitot Tube Advantages As mentioned under orifice flow meter except at Sr. No. 7. It does not require isolation of pipeline for installation and comparatively capital cost of the flow meter is less. Head loss is also less. Disadvantages As mentioned under Sr. No. i, iii, v, vi, vii of orifice flow meter in addition to inferiority in accuracy as it being point velocity measurement. 4. Annubar (Average pitot tube) Advantages As mentioned under pitot tube in addition to higher accuracy Disadvantages As mentioned under pitot tube except inferiority in accuracy i.e. accuracy improves due to averaging of multiported pressures. B. Linear Flow Meter 1. a. Turbine Wheel Flow Meter (Full bore or Inline) Advantages i) Excellent accuracy, linearity and repeatability ii) Usable at extreme temperature and pressure Disadvantages i) Suitable for only for low viscosity ii) Moving parts and hence wear

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iii) iv) v) vi) vii)

Sensitive to contamination Flow profile sensitive and needs conditioning section Affected by overloading, danger of over speeding Sensitive to vibration Isolation of pipeline is required for installation.

b. Turbine wheel flow meter (Insertion type) Advantages i) Isolation of pipeline is not required ii) Low cost Disadvantages i) Inferior accuracy because of point velocity measurement ii) Suspended impurities can clog it. In addition to above the disadvantages mentioned under Turbine wheel flow meter (full bore) are also applicable. 2. Variable Area Flow Meter (Rotameter) Advantages i) In expensive ii) No power supply required for local indication iii) No conditioning section iv) Easy maintenance Disadvantages i) It requires vertical installation ii) Affected by density and temperature of the fluid iii) Affected by vibration and pulsation 3. Vortex Flow Meter a. Full bore or Inline type Advantages i) No moving part ii) Robust construction iii) Unaffected by temperature, pressure and density changes Disadvantages i) Conditioning of long approached section ii) Span limitation due to viscosity iii) Shedding rate is non linear between 2000 and 10000 Reynoldss number iv) Available upto 400 mm size due to constraints of sensitivity v) Isolation of pipeline is required for installation b. Insertion Vortex Flow Meter Advantages i) Isolation of pipeline for installation is not required ii) Less costly than that of full bore In addition to above the advantages mentioned under full bore vortex flow meter are also applicable.

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Disadvantages i) Inferior accuracy due to point velocity measurement In addition to above the disadvantages mentioned under full bore vortex meter are applicable except at Sr. No. V. 5. Magnetic Flow Meter a. Full bore (Inline) Flow Meter Advantages of full bore magnetic (Inline) flow meter i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) viii) ix) x) xi) xii) Unobstructed flow passage No moving parts No additional pressure drop Unaffected by changes in temperature, density, viscosity, electrical conductivity Flow range setting can be optimised Suitable for water containing suspended solids Short conditioning section is required as it is insensitive to flow profile Measures flow both the directions Un- affected by contamination and deposit Minimum maintenance Good linearity Smaller diameter flow meter can be used on bigger diameter pipe with the help of reducers having angle not more than 160.

Disadvantages i) ii) iii) iv) b. Air or gas inclusion causes error Minimum required conductivity of fluid 0.5 ms/cm. Isolation of pipeline is required for installation Vacuum creation may detach inner liner

Insertion Magnetic Flow Meter Advantages i) ii) iii) Less costly than that of full bore No isolation of pipe line for installation Advantages mentioned under Sr. Nos. ii, iv, v, vi, viii, ix, x, xi of full bore magnetic flow meter are applicable. Inferior accuracy due to point velocity measurement Long conditioning section is required Sensitive to vibration Periodic cleaning of electrode is required

Disadvantages i) ii) iii) iv)

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6.

Ultrasonic Flow Meter a. Doppler type Ultrasonic Flow meter Advantages i) Unobstructed flow passage ii) No moving parts iii) No pressure drop iv) Measures flow in both directions v) Installations of individual elements in existing pipe lines possible vi) Minimum maintenance vii) Economical for large diameter pipe viii) Suitable for turbid water Disadvantages i) Not suitable for clear water ii) Accuracy is inferior iii) It requires long conditioning section b. Transit Time (Time of Flight) Ultrasonic Flow meter Advantages i) Advantages mentioned under Sr. nos. i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi, vii of Doppler type are applicable ii) Accuracy is improved in multipath iii) Accuracy is superior in insertion (wetted type) than that of clamp type. Disadvantages i) It requires long conditioning section ii) Not suitable for turbid water or carrying air/gas bubbles.

12.2.3 INSTALLATION OF FLOW METER

Every user expects a problem-free installation of the meter and thereafter only accurate reading. Regular monitoring is desirable in order to avoid failures. The meter is installed in the pipeline using flanged or threaded connections giving due consideration for conditioning sections. It should be seen that stress-free installation is carried out in pipeline. It is essential to install the flowmeter co-axially to the pipeline without protruding any packing or gasket into the water flow stream. In the case of ultrasonic meter the probes are welded on the pipeline which requires care to see that no projection is protruding in the pipeline. In this case onsite calibration is essential. Wherever converters are used with primary elements it should be observed that the connection between them should be protected against lightning strokes and any other interference signal. The installation on the existing water supply requires shutting down the water supply. This necessitates shortest installation time. The installations are strictly carried out as per manufacturers recommendations. In the case of differential pressure type flowmeter the impulse piping requires special care in respect of slope and protection. Similarly long disturbance free straight sections should be provided for uniformity. Installation should be vibration free as moving parts in the flowmeter wherever present will get worn out in addition to the effect on overall accuracy of the flowmeter.

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Installation in U shape is essential for intermittent water supply. Flow meters should be provided with battery backup in order to retain integrator reading during failure of electric supply.

12.2.4 MAINTENANCE OF FLOW METER

Modern development in the flowmeter measurement is that in most of the equipment a selfmonitoring facility is provided with which the maintenance staff monitors the health of the equipment. A number of instruments are enunciating the error conditions. As long as orifice, Pitot tube, Venturi & Annubar flowmeters are concerned they require regular purging of impulse piping. Similarly the transducers require periodical checking of zero and range setting. For the orifice it is essential to check sharpness of the edge as in the case of its deterioration or damage the flowmeter reading may vary upto 20%. Ultrasonic Flowmeter and Magnetic flowmeters being self-monitoring, they give information regarding deviation in accuracy or failure of probe or electrode. Whenever cleaning of probes or electrodes is required, those should be cleaned as per manufacturers recommendation. Turbine meter should be checked for bearing wear out periodically as presence of air in the liquid may damage the bearing because of overspeeding. Where deposits are to be expected in any flowmeter, the same should be regularly inspected and cleaned as per the experience gained during the course of time. As these deposits affect the accuracy of the measurement, Vortex meter, Magnetic flowmeter, Ultrasonic flowmeter, may show erroneous reading in the presence of deposits. In an intermittent water supply the corrosion rate of the pipe increases due to chlorine and air. The formation of incrustation & subsequent descaling affect flowmeter working especially differential pressure type, turbine meters.

12.2.5 CALIBRATION OF FLOW METERS

Flow calibration is essential to i) ii) iii) iv) Confirm performance of flowmeter Quality control Comply with statutory or legal requirements Provide traceability of measurement and confidence in resultant data.

The calibration is normally carried in the flow laboratory with the help of one of the following methods. i) ii) iii) iv) v) Gravimetric Volumetric Prover Master or reference meter Tow tank current meter calibration

There are two philosophies of flow meter calibration. One is that it is better to have a fixed calibration system with all the associated technical back up and with the flow meters being brought to the calibration system, the other favours calibrating in situ leaving the flow meters in their installed condition and using a portable calibrator. The former will generally provide

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the more accurate calibration but the latter has the advantage that site specific effects such as proximity to hydraulic disturbances can be taken into account. It is necessary to decide carefully to adopt the option. There is often no choice but to carry out in situ calibration where i) ii) iii) flow cannot be shut off site specific conditions have to be accounted for the meter is so large that removal, transport and testing costs would be prohibitive.

The major constraint with in situ calibration technique is that the high accuracy laboratory calibration can not be matched in the field and accuracies of 2% to 5% is all that can be achieved and such field tests are called confidence checks rather than absolute calibrations. Such checks are often the precursor to removal of flow meter for laboratory calibration or replacement. For field test following methods can be used. i) ii) iii) iv) v) Clamp on devices Thermodynamic method Velocity area methods (insertion meters) Tracer methods Flow simulators

Normally the manufacturers of the flowmeters provide laboratory calibration of the flow meters in their works. Some of the Government agencies also provide laboratory calibration vis. Fluid Control Research Institute (FCRI), Palghat, Central Water & Power Research Station (CWPRS), Pune and Institute for Design of Electrical Measuring Instruments (IDEMI), Mumbai

12.2.6 CONCLUSION
The present flow meter market is a challenging one to the purchaser. Unless the site problems are known, it is very difficult to select the flowmeter to serve the purpose from performance point of view. If the flowmeter is selected and installed properly, the maintenance will get reduced drastically. This is an age where energy audit is gaining wide acceptance in view of the spiraling energy cost. Thus, correct and accurate measurement of inputs (electrical power) and outputs (flow measurement in water works) need to be given due weightage and importance in all water works installations for effective and productive utilization of precious potable water resources. Details of Various Flow Meters in respect of following features are given in respective tables. Average Accuracies Broad areas of applications Performance factors Installation constraints Fluid property constraints Economic factors Installation & maintenance Common problems encountered Applicable standards for flow meters : : : : : : : : : Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 12.10 12.11

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TABLE 12.3 AVERAGE ACCURACIES OF VARIOUS FLOW METERS

Sr. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Type of flow meter Square edge orifice Venturi Pitot Annubar Turbine Rotameter Vortex Magnetic Doppler Transit time Accuracy % 1S 1S 2S 1S 0.5R 2S 1R 0.5R 2S 1R

Legends : S : in terms of full scale R : in terms of flow rate.

TABLE 12.4 BROAD AREAS OF APPLICATION OF FLOW METER FOR LIQUID

A Orifice Venturi Variable Area Anubar Turbine Insertion turbine Vortex Insertion Vortex Electro Magnetic Insertion Electro Magnetic Doppler Transit time 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 + 0 0 0 0 + 0
C: Large liquid flows (> 1.7 x 104 L/min.) D: Large water pipes (> 500 mm dia)

B + 0

C 0 0 0 0 0

D 0 0 0
]

0 0 0 0 + 0

Legends : 0 is suitable, generally applicable + is worth considering, sometimes applicable * is worth considering, limited availability or tends to be expensive. A blank indicates unsuitable; liquids (temp.>2000C) not applicable. A: General liquid application B: (< 50 CP) Low liquid flows (<2 L/min)

301

TABLE 12.5 PERFORMANCE FACTORS OF FLOW METER

Sr. No. Type of the flow meter Linearity % Repeatability % Rangeability Pressure drop at maximum flow 3-4 2 10:1 1/2 3 1-2 3 1 1 1 1 1
NS : Not specified 1 : Low 5 : High

Flow parameter measured R R 3R Vm R Vp R Vp R Vp Vm,R R

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Orifice Venturi Variable area Anubar Turbine Insertion Turbine Vortex Insertion Vortex Electro Magnetic Insertion Elec. Mag. Doppler Transit time

0.25% FS to 1%FS 0.25% FS to 1% FS 1% FS to 5% FS 0.5%R to 1%R 0.15% R to 1% R 0.25% R to 5% R 1% R 2% R 0.2% R to 1% R 2.5% R to 4% R No data 0.2 R to 1% R

0.2% FS 0.2% FS 0.5% FS to 1% FS 0.05% R to 0.2% R 0.02% R to 0.5% R 0.1% R to 2% R 0.1% R to 1% R 0.1% R 0.1% R to 0.2% FS 0.1% R 0.2% FS 0.2% R to 1% FS

3 or 4:1 3 or 4:1 1% FS 4 to 10:1 5 to 10:1 10 to 40:1 4 to 40:1 15 to 30:1 10 to 100:1 10:1 5 to 25:1 10 to 300:1

Legends: R : Flowrate T : Volume flow Vm : Mean velocity

Vp : Point velocity % R : Percentage flowrate % FS : Percentage fullscale

302

TABLE 12.6 INSTALLATION CONSTRAINTS FOR FLOW METER

Type Orientation Direction Quoted range of upstream lengths 5D/80D 0.5D/29D 0D 2D/25D 5D/20D 10D/80D 1D/40D 20D 0D/10D 25D 10D 0D/50D Quoted range of minimum downstream 2D/8D 4D 0D 2D/4D 3D/10D 5D/10D 5D 5D 0D/5D 5D 5D 2D/5D Pipe Diameter mm 6 to 2600 >6 2 to 150 >25 5 to 600 >75 12 to 400 >200 2 to 3000 >100 >25 >4

Orifice Venturi Variable area Anubar Turbine Insertion turbine Vortex Insertion vortex Electromagnetic Insertion magnetic Doppler Transit time
Legends : H VU VD I : : : :

H, VU,VD,I H,VU,VD,I VU H, VU,VD,I H, VU,VD,I H, VU,VD,I H, VU,VD,I H, VU,VD,I H, VU,VD,I H, VU,VD,I H, VU,VD,I H, VU,VD,I
Horizontal flow Upward vertical flow Downward vertical flow Inclined flow.

U,B U U U,B U,B U,B U U U,B U,B U,B U,B

U : Unidirectional flow B : Bidirectional flow D : Inner diameter of the pipe.

TABLE 12.7 FLUID PROPERTY CONSTRAINTS FOR FLOW METER

Sr. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Type Maximum pressure (bar) 400 400 700 400 3500 70 to 250 260 70 300 20 Pipe pressure 200
P : Possible

Temperature Range (0C) <650 <650 -80 to + 400 <540 -260 to +530 -50 to +430 -200 to +430 -30 to +150 -60 to +220 +5 to +25 -20 to +80 -200 to +250

Minimum Reynolds number 3 x 104 105 No data 104 104 10

4 4 3

More than one phase (Gas or liquid). P P N N N N P N S/P N S N/P

Orifice Venturi Variable area Anubar Turbine Insertion Turbine Vortex Insertion Vortex Electromagnetic [Link] Doppler Transit time

2 x 10

5 x 10

No limit No data 5 x 10
3 3

5 x 10

Legends : S : Suitable

N : Not suitable

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TABLE 12.8 ECONOMIC FACTORS OF FLOW METERS

Type Orifice Venturi Variable area Anubar Turbine Insertion Turbine Vortex Insertion Vortex Electromagnetic Insertion Ele. Mag. Doppler Transit time (time of flight) Legends : 1 : Low Installation cost 2-4 4 1-3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 1-3 1-3 5 : High Calibration cost 1 1-4 2 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 Operation cost 3 2 2 2 3 2 3 2 1 2 1 1 Maintenance cost 2 3 1 2 4 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 Spares cost 1 3 1 2 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2

TABLE 12.9 INSTALLATION & MAINTENANCE OF FLOW METERS

Type Installation Pipeline ahead of meter Conditioning section Maintenance during operation Maintenance free, monitor, possible foreign lubrication Maintenance free Self monitoring Not possible Service

Turbine meter

Flanged connections electrical installation Flanged connections or water installation, electrical Primary in flanges, impulse piping, convertor power supply Flanged or threaded connections Flanged connections, electrical connections Flanged connections or welding nipples, electrical installation.

Vortex meter

Conditioning section installation

Error monitoring

Electronic monitor functions and test values Direct measurement at primary

Differential pressure meters

Long conditioning sections No restrictions No conditioning section

Regular monitoring

Not possible

Variable area meter

Maintenance free Maintenance free

Constant appearance Monitoring with error announcements Signals for signal loss

Electromagnetic flow meter

Electronic control functions & test simulator

Ultrasonic meter

Long conditioning section

Maintenance free

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TABLE 12.10 COMMON PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN FLOW METER PERFORMANCE

Sr. No. 1. Problems Erratic reading Causes Operated below lower range having limited rangeability of flow meter Operated below lower range having limited rangeability of flow meter Less static pressure Clogged impulse piping Air trapped in impulse piping Frequent air trap in impulse piping Flow Meter Differential pressure type Linear flow meter D.P. type D.P. type D.P. type D.P. type Remedial Action Replace flow meter

Change range setting

Remove air trap Clear the choke up Remove air trap Change impulse piping slope to minimum 1: 10, If still the problem persists change the flow meter. Rectify impulse piping Redesign orifice

Damaged impulse piping 2. Unsteady reading : (oscillating) ratio more than 0.65

D.P. type D.P. type

Pulsating flow 3. Inaccurate reading Pipeline internally incrusted Scaling is formed at tapping points Orifice edge gets blunt Flow meter down stream is opened within the range of 50 times dia pipe length Unsymmetrical formation of vena contract due to large diameter of throat in relation to static pressure Mismatch between flow meter & pipeline Absence of sufficient conditioned approach pipeline Foreign particles such as pieces of concrete, bricks, debris etc. are gathered at upstream of orifice Flanged coupling used with flow meter leaking Pipeline may not be cylindrical within the range of 0.3% of the diameter of the pipe Pipeline partially filled

D.P. & Linear type D.P. & Linear type D.P. type D.P. type D.P. type

Condition the flow Clean the internal surface of pipeline Clean the tapping points Replace orifice plate Extend the down stream pipeline beyond 50 dia length Redesign the orifice

D.P. (orifice type)

D.P. & Linear type D.P. & Linear type D.P. (Orifice)

Remove the mismatch Provide sufficient conditional approach pipeline Remove them

D.P. & Linear type D.P. & Linear type D.P. & Linear type

Rectify the leakage Replace the pipe length of 2 times dia immediate upstream of the flow meter Install valve down stream of the flow meter for throttling

305

TABLE 12.11 APPLICABLE STANDARDS FOR FLOW METERS

BS:7405:1991 of BS:1042 BS:5792:1980 BS EN ISO :6817-1997 ISO Recommendation R541 1967(E) ISO 9104-91/BS 7526 : 1991 : : : : : : Selection and application of flow meters for the measurement fluid flow in enclosed conduits. Methods for the measurement of Fluid flow in pipes Orifice plates, Nozzles and Venturi Tubes. Specification for Electro Magnetic flow meters. Measurement of conductive liquid flow in closed conduitsMethod using Electro magnetic flow meters. Measurement of fluid flow by means of orifice plates and nozzles. Measurement of fluid flow in closed conduits Method of evaluating the performance of electro magnetic flow meter for liquid. Measurement of liquid flow in closed conduits using weighing and volumetric methods. Methods of measurement of fluid flow by means of Venturi meters: Part-2 Liquids. Recommendations for estimation of flow of liquids in closed conduits part I : Head loss in straight pipes due to frictional resistance. Recommendations for methods of measurements of fluid flow incompressible fluids. Measurement of fluid flow by means of pressure Differential devices part I : Orifice plates, nozzles and venturi tubes inserted in circula. Method for estimation of incompressible fluid flow in closed conduits by Bend meters.

BS : 6199 : 1991/ISO9368/1990 : IS : 4477 (Part-2) 1975 IS 2951 : 1965 : :

IS 2952 : Part I - 1964 IS 14615 Part I

: :

IS 9115 1979

12.3 INSTRUMENTATION
12.3.1 LEVEL MEASUREMENT
[Link] Introduction Instrumentation facilitates coordination of various water parameters, which are essential for optimization of water supply & treatment plant. One of the important parameters amongst them is water level measurement, which is carried out at various locations vis. water reservoir, inlet chamber, open channel, alum feeding tank, lime tank, filter beds, air vessel, sump well etc. This measurement is accomplished in water works by two following ways. A. B. Direct Method Inferential Method

Their merits, demerits as well as uses are given below in brief.

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A. DIRECT METHOD
Hook Type Level Indicator Advantages i. Low cost ii. Simple i. In expensive ii. Corrosion resistive iii. Simple i. Level can be read at convenient place ii. Operates over large temperature range iii. Very accurate Sight Glass Float Type Indicator

Disadvantage i. Only local reading ii. Human error may encountered in reading

i. Only local reading ii. Accuracy and readability depend on cleanliness of glass and fluid iii. It is fragile i. Filter bed level ii. Reservoir level iii. Head loss in filter

i. They are tailored to tank geometry ii. Requires a certain amount of mechanical equipment

Uses i. Inlet channel level

i. ii. iii. iv.

Filter bed Final water reservoir Sump well Lime tank

B. INFERENTIAL METHOD
Hydrostatic Pressure Gauge Type & Pressure Bulb Type Displacer Level Type Electrical Method (Capacitance Type) Ultrasonic

Advantages i. Easy maintenance i. Excellent accuracy ii. Simple to adjust ii. Possible at remote iii. With pressure bulb places type remote reading possible iv. Reasonably accurate Disadvantage i. Instrument must be installed at base reference level for gauge type ii. Pressure bulb type relatively costly Uses i. Delivery head of the pump (pressure gauge type) ii. Clear or raw water reservoir iii. Sump level i. Limited range ii. High cost iii. Requires stilling chamber iv. Requires a significant amount of mechanical equipment i. Clear water reservoir ii. Raw water reservoir

i. Good accuracy ii. Possible at remote places iii. Very sensitive iv. Suitable for highly corrosive media i. Affected by dirt & other contaminants ii. Affected by temperature

i. Good accuracy ii. Possible at remote places iii. Suitable for liquid as well as bulk products i. Affected by foam ii. Not suitable for high temperature & pressure

i. Raw water reservoir ii. Clear water reservoir

Raw water as well as clear water level i.e. inlet channel sump level etc. ii. Lime tank iii. Sludge level

i.

307

[Link] MAINTENANCE OF LEVEL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS. Sight Glasses After closing top and bottom valves remove the glass and clean with soap water using brush. Clean with fresh water. Assemble the parts again in proper order.

Float Operated Instrument Guide cable wound round a pulley should be lubricated. Other moving parts should also be lubricated. Zero setting should be checked. Float should be checked from corrosion point of view.

Hydrostatic Pressure Instruments (Pressure Gauge Type) Check for Zero setting after disconnecting from the system and purging out. Check for the leakages from the connection after reconnecting it.

Pressure Bulb Type Check for zero setting. Check for air leakages from the bulb by applying soap water. Check coupling from corrosion point of view. Clean the bulb with fresh water. Check for the correctness of the signal by moving the bulb in the water.

Displacer, Electrical or Ultrasonic Instrument Clean the instrument and check for zero and range setting.

12.3.2 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

[Link] Introduction In water supply network pressure parameter plays very important role in order to get sufficient water to the consumers. Similarly in flow measurement by differential pressure type flow meter, differential pressure measurement across the primary element is the main physical parameter to inter link with flowing fluid. This pressure or differential pressure measurement is accomplished with the help of following methods in water works. A. B. C. Manometers Elastic Pressure Transducer Electrical Pressure Transducer

The advantages and disadvantages of the instrument of pressure measurement normally used in waterworks are given below.

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A. MANOMETERS
U Tube Manometers Advantages i. Simplest ii. Low cost Disadvantage i. No fixed reference ii. Large & bulky iii. Need for levelling iv. No over range protection Uses i. For measurement of differential pressure in D.P. type flow meter & calibration of D.P. type transducers i. Well Type Manometers Zero reference setting is possible ii. Low cost Accuracy inferior to U tube manometer ii. Large & bulky iii. Need for levelling iv. No over range protection i. For calibration of D.P. type flow meters & measurement of differential pressure in D.P. type flow meter i. Inclined Manometers i. More sensitive ii. Low cost

i. Large & bulky ii. Need for levelling iii. No over range protection

i.

For measurement of very small pressure differences

B.

Elastic Pressure Transducer : Commonly used Bourdon tube type pressure gauge : Advantages i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) Low Cost Simple construction Time tested in applications Availability in a wide range Adaptability to electronic instruments High accuracy in relation to cost

Disadvantages i) ii) iii) iv) Low spring gradient below 3 kg/cm2 Susceptibility to shock and vibration Susceptibility to hysteresis Accuracy in terms of full scale deflection

Uses i) ii) iii) iv) v) Pump delivery & suction Water supply distribution network Air receivers Chlorinators Pump cooling water.

309

C.

Electrical Pressure Transducer In this category following types are there 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Strain gauge pressure transducer Potentio metric pressure transducer Capactive pressure transducer Variable reluctance pressure transducer Piezo electric pressure transducer

The advantages & disadvantages of electrical pressure transducers commonly used in water works are as follows.
Potentio metric Transducer Advantages i. Widely used in Industry as these are simpler and less expensive ii. Easy compatibility with the requirement Disadvantage i. Finite resolution ii. Wear out early iii. Noise signal is generated Uses i. Where less accuracy is required Capactive Pressure Transducer i. ii. iii. iv. Short response time Vibration proof Extremely sensitive It can measure static as well as dynamic changes Sensitivity changes with temperature Variable Reluctance Type i. ii. iii. iv. Excellent linearly Good repeatability Low hysteresis High sensitivity

i.

i. Relatively large size ii. More nos. of components iii. More maintenance i. Distribution network ii. In process instrumentation

i. Distribution network ii. In process instrumentation

[Link] Calibration of Pressure Measuring Instruments Pressure instrument calibration is the process of adjusting the instruments output signal to match a known range of pressure. All instruments tend to drift from their last setting. This is because springs stretch, electronic components undergo slight changes on the atomic level and other working parts sag, bend or lose their elasticity. The calibration procedure includes Zero, Span and linearity adjustments. The pressure is varied with the help of pneumatic calibrator so as to give desired pressures to the instrument. The settings are carried out on the instrument for zero and span adjustment on the basis of applied pressures. For carrying out linearity setting various pressures between zero and maximum range of the instruments are applied and adjusted the output of the measuring instrument with the help of controls provided in the instrument. In the case of pressure gauges the calibration is carried out by means of dead weight tester. In absence of pneumatic calibrator the air can be supplied to the instrument with proper pressure regulator and pressure is measured with the help of manometer so as to calibrate the instrument. The calibration should be checked every 3,6 or 12 months depending upon the use and accuracy expected.

310

Maintenance of pressure instruments is essential for their proper working and accurate reading. It also improves the life and reliability of the instruments. [Link] Preventive Maintenance The manufacturer of the instrument gives the instructions in the manual supplied along with the instruments. These instructions explain how to maintain the instrument. Generally these consist of following categories. 1. Visual Inspection Any damage to piping or wiring of the instrument observed should be immediately rectified. It avoids entry of foreign bodies into the system and further damage to the instrument. 2. Venting or Blow down Liquid lines are generally clogged subsequently if those are not vented periodically. Similarly air or gas in the liquid columns gives wrong readings. In order to avoid such incidents it is essential to blow down the instrument piping periodically on the basis of experience gained in the field. 3. Cleaning and Lubrication Instruments with mechanical linkages undergo wear and misalignment. Dirt may clog the linkages, causing the mechanism to become less flexible. If not attended these kind of faults,
TABLE 12.12 A TYPICAL TROUBLE SHOOTING CHART FOR PRESSURE & LEVEL MEASURING INSTRUMENT (ELECTRONIC TRANSMITTER TYPE)
Fault Low output Or zero output Or High output Or Erratic output Possible Causes Power Supply Corrective Action Check output of power supply Check for short and multiple grounds Check polarity of connections Check loop impedance Check the pressure connection Check for leakage or blockage Check for entrapped air or gas in the line Check for shorts in sensor leads Check connector to transmitter Check for amplifier assembly by replacing it with spare one. Check sensing element for its working by gently tapping it. Check mechanical linkage Check for dirt finding Excessive wear, misalignment For dirt clean and lubricate as per manufactures recommendations Realign Mechanical parts if necessary For wear replace the worn-out components Replace electrical/electronic subassemblies and perform calibration

Pressure tapping

Transmitter

Sensing element Tapping by hand gently the mechanism sensor does not respond Mechanical

Electrical

311

the instrument may breakdown subsequently. This clogging can be removed by cleaning and working of the instrument can be improved by lubrication as per manufacturers recommendations. Dust can be removed from the panels as well as from the instruments with the help of air blower. If auto test facility is provided on the instrument by the manufacturer the same can be used to check the performance of the instrument daily. If any kind of fault occurs, in such instrument, the same is identified and displayed by the instrument itself.

12.3.3 WATER QUALITY PARAMETER MONITORING

[Link] Introduction In water works various treatment processes are carried out in order to supply potable water. The parameters of the water which are normally used for monitoring are as follows : Turbidity pH Residual Chlorine

These parameters are monitored either by means of on-line instruments or by analytical laboratory instruments or both. Their relative advantages and disadvantages are as follows. [Link] Turbidimeter
Online Advantages i. Turbidity continuously monitored i. Low cost ii. Can be hooked up for automation iii. Can be set for giving alarm if minimum and maximum limits of turbidity are exceeded. iv. Human error in sampling is eliminated Disadvantages i. High cost i. Does not monitor continuously ii. High Maintenance is required iii. Periodical calibration is required iv. It is not portable Maintenance i. Clean chamber & lense with fresh water calibration facility which is useful for periodical calibration iii. Clean sources of light i. Clean sampling tube with fresh water should be cleaned with soft cotton iii. Calibrate before carrying out measurement iv. Calibrate with standard samples of 100 NTU, 10 NTU & 1 NTU or calibrate with formazin standard solution ii. Microprocessor based instrument has self ii. Bulb, standard sample tubes and lense ii. Human error may encounter iii. Low accuracy ii. Simple to use iii. Portable iv. Easy maintenance Laboratory Type

312

[Link] pH METER
Online Advantages i. Continuously monitored ii. Can be hooked up for automation iii. Can be set for giving alarm for specified limits iv. Human error in sampling is eliminated Disadvantages i. High cost ii. Periodical calibration is required iii. High maintenance cost (replacement of electrodes) iv. It is not portable Maintenance i. Clean electrode with soap water or clean with 5% concentrated H2SO4 and 6% concentrated H2O2 ii. Calibrate periodically with standard solution of 4 pH and 7 pH iii. Replace electrodes if dried up i. Does not monitor continuously ii. Human error may encounter iii. Low accuracy i. ii. iii. iv. Low cost Simple to use Portable Easy maintenance Laboratory Type

i. Clean sampling electrode with distilled water ii. Calibrate the instrument with three standards samples i.e. 4 pH, 7 pH & 9.2 pH iii. Prepare standard samples from readily available capsules iv. Calibration may last from 4 days to 7 days

[Link] Residual Chlorine Meter

Online Advantages i. Continuously monitored ii. Can be hooked up for automation iii. Can be set for giving alarm for specified limits iv. Human error in sampling is eliminated Disadvantages i. High cost ii. Periodical calibration is required iii. High maintenance cost (replacement of membrane) iv. It is not portable v. It requires electricity Maintenance i. Clean membrane if it gets clogged ii. If membrane is damaged replace it with new one iii. Fill up electrolyte if necessary iv. Calibrate it using DPD. i. ii. iii. iv. Laboratory Type (Lovibond Type) Low cost Simple to use Portable Easy maintenance

i. Does not monitor continuously ii. Human error in sampling may encounter iii. Low accuracy

i. Clean tubes with distilled water ii. Calibration is not required as it being a comparator

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12.4 AUTOMATION
12.4.1 INTRODUCTION
In small and medium plants the supervision and coordination of various activities can be carried out by the operator manually. However for large plant it becomes cumbersome to supervise, operate, coordinate, control and protect it. It is preferably to use sophisticated instrumentation and control system. The task of controlling is achieved by programmable logic controller or digital computer. The process of monitoring the parameter, comparing it with the set values, manipulating the signal and sending the instructions to concerned equipment for taking action is known as automation. Automation entails the replacement or elimination of intermediate components of a system or steps in a process, especially those involving human intervention or decision making, by technologically more advance ones.

12.4.2 AUTOMATION OF TUBE WELLS

[Link] General In some of the cases automation is found to be very useful & efficient even when the number of parameters involved in controlling in the system are less. The fine example of it is the automation of tube wells in remote areas. It is being easily achieved without using P.L.C. The functioning of a pumping set automatically as and when required as per the availability of power supply is carried out without the help of pump operator as described in the following paras. [Link] How the Automation is Made For Operation of the tube well electric switch gear is used. In this electric switch gear the starter is a main component. Starter has two buttons visible on the body of it. One button is green and another is Red. Green button is used for starting the pumping set while Red button is used for closing the pumping set. Green button is normally known as NO (Normally Open) and Red button is known as NC (Normally Close). Whenever any pumping set is to be started Green button is pushed to complete the circuit and energize the no volt coil to make the main contactor functional which in turn operates the motor. In manual operation this starting & closing of the tubewells are done by the pump operator when the tubewells are required to run round the clock. This can be achieved by short circuiting the connections of the Green button i.e. NO is converted into NC. This results into all the time complete circuit giving voltage to no volt coil. So long power is available the tubewell remains functioning. Whenever there is any tripping or power shut down, the tubewell remains non-functional. In this case there is no need of any pump operator but for cluster of tubewells an electrician is needed to keep a watch on the smooth functioning of electric switch gear and pumping sets. For automation of tube wells a healthy switch gear is required which should have all protection devices for the pumping set. The details of such switch gear are given below:

314

a. Automation Switch Gear: Automation switch gear in the shape of a Panel Board or Feeder Pillar should have the following components: Starter of some standard make. Volt meter- 0 to 500 volts Ammeter of required Capacity Circuit breaker of required capacity Energy meter Capacitor of required capacity. Protection device for single phasing & reverse phasing (current sensing or voltage sensing) Selector Switch.

Now a days protection devices are available on the market which have an in-built system of prevention of dry run alongwith single phasing and reverse phasing protection. It is recommended that this device should be used along with the automation switch gear. The technical specifications of this device are given below: Supply Voltage: 1. 2. 3. 4. System Auxiliary Output Relay Trip setting i) ii) 5. Unbalance Under current : : : : : : : : : : 50% of motor current + 5% (fixed) 75% of set current +/ - 5% (fixed) Above 120% of set current (fixed) 4 to 7 (fixed) Less than 2 seconds As per inverse time characteristics 220 240/380 415 440 V. AC +/ - 10%@50/60 Hz. 110/240/380/415 440 V. AC+/- 10% ICO 5 A at 240 V. AC

iii) Overload i) ii) 6. 7. On phase failure For dry running : :

Trip type delay (seconds)

iii) For overloading Resetting CTS

Auto/manual/remote As per full current load (20/40/. )

b. The Method of Installing the Protection Device in the System A line diagram of installing the devices in the system is given at Fig. 12.1 In the diagram shown above the main supply 3 phase marked as RYB (colour based) will be controlled through proper rating of main switch or 3 pole circuit breaker. This 3 phase supply will pass through the device with CTS (Current Transformer Sensor) as shown in the diagram. In the diagram it has been indicated that 1st and 3rd phase (R&B) are passing

315

ANNEXURE - I

316

through the specified CTS and remaining 2nd phase (Y) is directly connected to no volt coil through relay. A link from phase (R) through the protection device is connected to 2nd point of the no volt coil. Hence after installation this device it will protect the pumping set running with unbalance of motor current, under current i.e. 75% of rated current (dry running condition) and overloading upto 120% of the rated current which may be single phasing also. This device is normally current sensing device. In case the above mentioned device is not available or is not to be used due to some economic reasons then the conventional single phasing preventor can be used with the automation switch gear. This is normally voltage sensing device. The line diagram is shown at Fig. 12.2. ANNEXURE - II

c. Use of Time Switch with Automation Electric Switchgear Time switch (timer) is a device to control the operation of the pumping set as and when required. There are certain distribution areas where supply of water is done directly through tubewells. Wherever round the clock water supply is given in the area there is no need of time switch and only conventional electric panel as mentioned in earlier paras will be used. Wherever intermittent water supply for few hours is needed through tubewells then the installation of time switch is required alongwith the electric switch gear to control the operation of tubewell. This time switch will make and break the power supply to starter for a pre-set period of operation of the tubewell. The period

317

between the make and break is the period for operation of tubewell. The make and break period of operation is adjusted with the help of dogs provided on the operating time disc of the time switch. The time disc operated with the help of a energy spring which gets its energy by rewinding the spring. This rewinding system is automatic which is done when the power is available. The circuit diagram of installation of time switch is given at Fig. 12.3.

d. Selection of Type of Relay It is recommended that whenever there are no or lesser power trippings starters preferably with manual reset relay should be used so that whenever pumping set trips due to single phasing, unbalancing or overloading then it should not start functioning again automatically. It should restart only after the checking by the electrician. He will reset the relay and start the pumping set. If any abnormal condition is there with the pumping set, he will again close the pumping set, put the remark in the log book and will intimate further the concerned supervisor about the probable cause of the abnormal condition of the pumping set.

318

Although automatic reset relays are available with the starters but for automatic operation of the tubewell manual reset relays are more beneficial. It has been proved practically that automatic reset relays result in more burning of motors in comparison to manual reset relays. However where power trippings are more, there the use of automatic reset relays may be considered to avoid the larger loss of water production. 12.4.3 Problems and Remedial Measures
Sr. No. 1 Problems Whenever there is pumping set shut down due to overloading, single phasing or unbalancing of phases, normally the pumping set remains un-operational (due to manual reset relay) till it is checked and restarted by the electrician. This causes the loss in production of water. Due to reverse phasing the pumping set remains un-operational till it is checked and restarted by the electrician. This causes the loss in production of water. Remedial Measures Bulk meters for measuring the inflow at water collection point should be provided. By noticing the inflow rate the operator on duty at collection point must know that from how many tubewells he is getting that rate of flow and accordingly he should intimate the Engineer-Incharge concerned to take corrective measures. Bulk meters for measuring the inflow at water collection point should be provided. By noticing the inflow rate the operator on duty at collection point must know that from how many tubewells he is getting that rate of flow and accordingly he should intimate the Engineer, Incharge concerned to take corrective measures. The electricians in charge for checking of tubewells should be given practical training about the circuit diagrams and the functioning of the all components of the automation switchgears. This should be followed by refresher courses after a period of two years. Sufficient stock of all moving parts like contact points, no volt coils, contactors blocks, spare parts kits etc. be kept at the levels of Engineer incharge store.

Due to lack of knowledge of the circuits it has been noticed that the electricians by pass the single phasing devices and connect the pumping set directly with the starter. This has resulted frequent burning of motors. Due to non-availability of spare parts in time, it has been noticed that electricians make direct connections with circuit breakers or ICTP switches thus operating the tubewells directly by circuit breaker/ICTP switches. This has resulted into more burning of motors and electrical accidents also. Normally preventive maintenance is ignored and dust blowing is not done. This results in failure of automation devices.

There should be regular preventive maintenance as per recommendations of manufacturer. Dust blowing with the help of air blower should be a regular practice and it should be at least once a week. This should be done by the electrician. This will prolong the life of the switch gear. Both the non-return-valves, one of delivery side & another of pumping set should always be kept functioning & back flow of water into tubewell should not be allowed.

Non-functioning of check valve (non-return valve) in the delivery side of the pump and nonfunctioning of NRV of pumping set may cause back flow of water of rising main into tubewell when pump set is not functioning. This condition also causes frequent burning of motors.

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12.5 TELEMETRY AND SCADA SYSTEMS

12.5.1 MANUAL MONITORING
Normally the Managers of O&M of water utilities monitor levels in Service reservoirs, pressures and flows in a distribution system and on operation of pumps such as hours of pumping and failure of pumps and monitor water quality by measuring residual chlorine. The manager usually uses the telephone line or wireless unit to gather the data, uses his discretion gained with experience and takes decisions to ensure that the system is operating with required efficiency. Manual collection of data and analysis may not be helpful in large undertakings if water utilities have to aim at enhanced customer service by improving water quality and service level with reduced costs. This is possible if the management acquires operational data at a very high cost.

12.5.2 TELEMETRY
The inspection, monitoring and control of O&M of a water utility can be automated partially through telemetry. Telemetry enables regular monitoring of the above data on real time basis and the data is provided to anyone in the organization who can review the data and take a decision. In a Telemetry system probes/sensors will be used which will sense and generate signals for the level, pressure and flow in a given unit and transmit the signals by radio/by Telephone. Normally radio link is used and telephone line with modem is used as spare communication. Microwave satellite or fiber- optic transmission systems are also used for data transmission. The water pumping stations may communicate via a cable buried with the pipe. However there may be locations where the main power may not be available and hence solar panels with a battery charger are used to power the remote terminal unit (RTU) and the radio. In urban areas RTU s can communicate on cell phones and or packed radio networks. For remote locations satellite technology is also available. [Link] Data for collection by telemetry The data includes levels in Service reservoirs, pressures and flows in a distribution system, flows/quantity of delivered into a SR and data on operation of pumps such as Voltage, amperes, energy consumed, operating times and down times of pumps and chlorine residuals. In a telemetry system up-to the minute real time information is gathered from remote terminal unit located at the water treatment plant, reservoir, flow meter, pumping station etc. and transmitted to a central control station where the information is updated, displayed and stored manually or automatically. [Link] Processing data from telemetry The meter readings from reservoirs is useful information for managing the distribution system and helps in preventing overflow from reservoirs. However the effectiveness of Telemetry in pumping operations is dependent on reliability of instrumentation for measuring flows, pressures, KWh meters, etc. Standard practice is to calculate pump efficiency and water audit calculations on a monthly basis. Telemetry can also be used to supervise water hammer protection system wherein the pump failures are linked to initiate measures to prevent occurrence of water hammer.

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12.5.3 SCADA SYSTEMS

Instead of manual review of data collected by telemetry and initiating action manually, if telemetry is extended to include actions based on the data for remote control of pumps and other equipment then such a system is known as SCADA. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) is a computer aided system which collects, stores and analyses the data on all aspects of O&M. The operating personnel can retrieve the data and control their operations and sometimes the system itself is programmed to control the operations on the basis of the acquired data. SCADA enhance the efficiency of the O&M personnel who are better informed about the system and hence are in full control of the operations. Whether in a telemetry system or a SCADA system up-to the minute real time information is gathered from remote terminal unit located at the water treatment plant, reservoir, flow meter, pumping station etc. and transmitted to a central control station where the information is updated, displayed and stored manually or automatically. In a SCADA system the information is linked to a supervisory system for local display, alarm annunciation etc. which may be linked to remote control of pumping operations or operation of valves etc. [Link] Data collected in SCADA SCADA systems will have probes/sensors which will sense and generate signals for the level, pressure and flow in a given unit and transmit the signals for storage and analysis in the computer. The signals are transmitted by radio, by Telephone, microwave satellite or fiberoptic transmission systems. The signals transmitted are stored as data, analysed and presented as information. SCADA systems can include the network diagrams of the distribution system of which detailed sketches of a particular area can be viewed by the operator if necessary to observe the current operating data such as flow, pressure, level or residual chlorine. SCADA systems in Water distribution are programmed for collection and processing of following information. to monitor levels in Service reservoirs, pressures and flows in a distribution system to monitor and store data on levels in SRs, or flows/quantity of delivered into a SR or pressures of distribution system and generate alarms for threshold values of levels, flows and pressures to initiate operation of valves and pumps to monitor and store data on operation of pumps such as Voltage, amperes, energy consumed, operating times and down times of pumps to measure and record chlorine residuals and generate alarms at thresh hold values of residual chlorine in the distribution systems.

[Link] Analysis of Data from SCADA SCADA systems can be designed to analyse the data and provide daily, weekly, monthly and or Annual reports or schedules. It also helps in monitoring the inventories on spare parts and plan requirement of spares. Responses for different scenarios such as seasonal changes or any emergencies can be programmed into SCADA. The information stored in the SCADA can be easily retrieved and analysed. Typical information that could be generated in the system include : Consumption patterns linked to the weather conditions, plots on pressures against

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flows, electrical energy consumption linked to consumer demands, record on system leaks, record on pump failures, areas with less chlorine residuals etc. [Link] Limitations of SCADA Before installing a SCADA the utility staff should visit facilities with SCADA and discuss with the utility managers and then decide the scope of SCADA to be provided in their utility. The objective of SCADA should be to make the job of operator easier, more efficient and safer to make their facilities performance more reliable and cost effective. There is no doubt that SCADA enables better capacity utilization and help in improved service levels at low operating cost. The following limitations are to be kept in view before embarking on an ambitious program of providing SCADA. SCADA designing calls for careful planning and requires a phased implementation, particularly dependent on appropriate training of utility staff and their willingness to adopt the new technology. Availability of power supply is very essential to efficient functioning of the system. Wherever possible the RTU for flow meter or pressure sensor is provided power from electricity mains via a battery that acts as a buffer in case of mains failure. There may be metering locations for flow and pressure sensors without any source of power close by. In such cases Solar power may be one alternative. Initially installations at such locations may operate well but they are always subject to poor after sales service by vendors, vandalism and theft. Ultimate improvement in water supply distribution system cannot be achieved through advanced application of technology like SCADA. The utility staff should have reached a reasonable level of managerial capabilities even with conventional methods of monitoring and control by adopting a holistic approach when the SCADA may further enhance their capabilities; but SCADA by itself is not the answer for poor or inefficient management.
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