DEFINITION OF PHILOSOPHY

Humans naturally seek knowledge. As intellectual and philosophical issues are resolved, new doors of
thought keep opening. When a person falls into the depths of wonder and amazement, philosophy is
what helps them navigate out of this intellectual whirlpool. That's why the Greek philosopher Plato said
that philosophy begins with wonder and the attempt to resolve the mental confusions that arise from
it. A person’s consciousness gradually matures, and the heights of awareness further increase their
sense of wonder. Philosophy addresses this wonder and seeks to answer the astonishing questions that
arise in the mind.

Thought generally arises when a person faces a mental issue. The solution to an intellectual problem
cannot be instinctively achieved. When a person goes through a specific intellectual process between a
challenging issue and its response, this mental process is called thought, which satisfies the curiosity.
This intellectual process, in particular circumstances and environments, compels a person to think,
which we call philosophical contemplation. Every person has a level of thought, which can be termed as
an individual or personal philosophy. A person’s individual perspective or personal philosophy is based
on beliefs and values, while systematic and scientific philosophy contains logical coherence and
continuity.

Three types of questions always arise in a person’s mind: What is something? How is it? And why is it?
The answers to "what" and "how" can be obtained through scientific thought, while philosophy
provides the answer to "why," through which ideas, concepts, principles, and values are established
and their worth and significance are explained.

Philosophy is essentially the quest for truth and the love of wisdom. Therefore, the one who solves
philosophical problems is called a sage, wise person, or philosopher. If we study the history of Greek
philosophy, we learn that Pythagoras was the first to use the word "philosophy." Philosophy takes one
to the heights of thought, where the philosopher tries to know the truth and reality. It is a tendency
through which philosophy, as a whole, attempts to present a picture of human thought and ultimate
reality. A philosopher is a highly intelligent and insightful person who strives to understand the origins
and ends of things and ideas through their thought and perspective. The English word "philosophy" has
Greek roots, where "Philia" means love and "Sophia" means wisdom. Thus, the literal meaning of
philosophy is "Love of Wisdom."
Philosophers are those who value the understanding of eternal, unchanging entities and ideas. We can
divide the history of philosophy into three major periods. The first period is the Ancient Era, which
includes philosophies such as Indian philosophy, Chinese philosophy, Iranian philosophy, Egyptian
philosophy, and Greek philosophy. The second period is known as the Medieval Era, where Muslim
philosophy, Christian philosophy, and Hebrew philosophy are significant. The third period includes
modern and postmodern philosophy.

In the first period, notable Greek philosophers include Thales, Heraclitus, Empedocles, Parmenides,
Pythagoras, Protagoras, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. These great Greek philosophers presented
remarkable theories in the field of philosophy that remain relevant today. In the second period, the
Medieval Era, Muslim philosophers such as Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, Ibn Miskawayh, Imam Al-
Ghazali, Ibn Bajjah, Ibn Tufayl, Ibn Rushd, Imam Abu Bakr Razi, Ibn Khaldun, and Ibn Arabi are like
shining stars in the sky of philosophy. They continued to strive to solve various philosophical and
religious issues. Similarly, in the third period, prominent philosophers of modern and postmodern
philosophy include Descartes, Kant, Hegel, Nietzsche, Bergson, Russell, Whitehead, Wittgenstein,
Derrida, and Chomsky.

Philosophical thoughts are sometimes associated with nations. At times, a nation might not produce any
philosophy for a long period, but it is evident that humans always strive to understand reality, a pursuit
that will undoubtedly continue forever. In every era, the continuous struggle to discover and achieve
truth is known as philosophy. When a person sees something new or hears a sound, they are filled with
wonder. This sense of wonder sparks questions in their mind, leading to thought and reflection. It is
from this wonder that philosophy begins. Thought and reflection are what philosophy is all about. Plato
has said: "Philosophy begins with wonder."

Just as the Greek philosopher Plato believed that philosophy begins with wonder, the founder of
modern philosophy, Descartes, believed that philosophy begins with doubt and the natural desire to
free oneself from the tormenting mental state of uncertainty. Doubt refers to the process of skepticism,
meaning that until certainty is achieved regarding a situation or object, no definitive decision is made. In
other words, it is viewed with doubt. This implies questioning the reality of something—what is its true
nature? Is it really as it appears? Is the reasoning or logic applied valid or not? Could it be merely a play
on words? Descartes said: "Philosophy begins with doubt."

In modern times, the concept of doubt has developed further. Philosophy has two important functions
or tasks: the first is synthesis, and the second is analysis. Philosophy weaves together the threads of
scattered thoughts. The task of synthesis is to eliminate intellectual fallacies within a framework and
unify the elements of thought, thereby highlighting the significance of the parts in relation to their
connection with the whole. Similarly, through the process of analysis, ideas, concepts, and
understandings are examined. Analysis leads to the recognition of the true facts and their status.
Analysis or synthesis, both are specialized processes that require a unique skill set. An average person,
without a deep intellectual background, cannot achieve such excellence. Thus, philosophy is primarily
for philosophers; it is beyond the grasp of ordinary people.

All sciences have their roots in philosophy. A person who masters various disciplines such as physics,
chemistry, medicine, geometry, music, psychology, economics, astronomy, and metaphysics is referred
to as a sage, a wise person, or a philosopher. They are intellectually and conceptually superior to others.
All sciences have emerged from philosophy, which is why Comte referred to philosophy as the "mother
of all sciences."

Philosophers develop theories, and scientists implement these theories to create conveniences.
Philosophy is theoretical, while science is its practical aspect. In this way, philosophy guides science.
According to W.T. Stace, where other scientific disciplines end, philosophy begins its inquiries. This
means that a theory is first developed, and then scientists act upon it. When the work of science is
completed, there arises a need for another theory. This theory is provided by individuals with a
philosophical mindset. Similarly, Herbert Spencer states that science is partially organized knowledge,
while philosophy is knowledge organized as a whole.

In philosophy, problems of life are addressed in a systematic and organized manner, with broad-
mindedness and openness. Philosophical thoughts broaden the minds of individuals, making them
capable of slowly and gradually opening the closed doors of the entire cosmic environment. It is through
philosophy that all sciences in the world are interconnected, enabling humanity to generally create
meaning, order, balance, and wholeness in the imaginative universe. Philosophy is both the beginning
and the end of knowledge. Whether it is critique, research, synthesis, or analysis, philosophy is the
foundation of all. Philosophy is the method of reaching the depths of reality. Through thought and
intellectual effort, only philosophy can reveal the true nature of existence

Philosophical Questions

The fundamental task of philosophy is to raise questions, enabling individuals to think critically in
whatever field they are engaged. Throughout history, certain specific questions have consistently arisen
in human minds, such as: What is a human being? What is the universe? Who is its creator? What is
knowledge? How is reflection possible? What are the sciences that set standards? Essentially, these are
all philosophical questions. Finding answers to these questions is the work of philosophers, which is why
it is often said that philosophy is what philosophers do—meaning, the theories and ideas that
philosophers develop in their quest for understanding are what constitute philosophy.

The scope of philosophy’s subjects, topics, or questions is vast. It is impossible to definitively outline the
intellectual boundaries of philosophy, but we can take a general look at what the scope and standards of
philosophy might be. Philosophy encourages deep thinking and critical inquiry into these fundamental
questions, pushing the limits of human understanding and expanding the horizons of knowledge.
Scope of Philosophy

The scope of philosophy refers to its breadth, meaning which important topics are discussed within it.
What subjects or disciplines does philosophy cover? It is often said that philosophy is the "mother of all
sciences," meaning that all other sciences have originated from philosophy. Ancient philosophers were
experts in all fields of knowledge; a philosopher was well-versed in physics, chemistry, biology, botany,
psychology, economics, geometry, logic, sociology, and history.

Over time, as different branches of knowledge advanced, they separated from philosophy and
established their own distinct identities. For example, physics and chemistry were among the first to
break away from philosophy, while psychology established its own identity as a separate discipline
about a hundred years ago.

The topics of philosophy can generally be divided into three major categories;

ONTOLOGY (ONTO MEANS BEING WHILE LOGY MEANS STUDY OF)

EPISTEMOLOGY (EPISTEM MEANS KNOWLEDGE WHILE LOGY MEANS STUDY OF)

AXIOLOGY(AXIOS MEANS VALUES WHILE LOGY MEANS STUDY OF)

1. Ontology:

Ontology deals with questions regarding the nature of the universe. It explores the reality of the
universe, its nature, and essence. What is the foundation of the universe? How did it come into
existence? What is its origin? Ontology seeks to answer these questions. It also examines whether the
universe is composed of a single substance or multiple substances. Ontology is further divided into three
theories:
 - Monism: According to the theory of monism, the universe originated from a single substance. For
example, the ancient Greek philosopher Thales believed that the entire universe was made of water.

- Dualism: The theory of dualism posits that the universe is composed of two substances, such as mind
and matter.

(iii) ‫( کثرتیت‬Pluralism)

Pluralism suggests that the universe is made up of multiple substances. Pluralism is the theory that the
universe did not originate from a single substance or even two, but rather from countless fundamental
elements. According to this theory, the universe is composed of a variety of different substances, each
contributing to the existence of various entities. The Greek philosopher Empedocles believed that the
universe is made up of four basic elements—water, earth, fire, and air. Another Greek philosopher,
Democritus, expanded on this idea, arguing that the universe is not composed of just four elements but
rather an infinite number of them.

(2) Epistemology (‫)علمیات‬

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature, sources, and limits of knowledge.
It explores questions such as: What is knowledge? What are its sources and limits? Can we truly know
anything? Are our perceptions reliable, or are they mere illusions? Some philosophers believe that the
attainment of knowledge is impossible. For instance, the founder of modern philosophy, Descartes,
argued that skepticism should be used to evaluate knowledge. According to him, philosophical thinking
becomes clearer through doubt, revealing that the acquisition of knowledge might be impossible. He
suggests that by doubting everything and analyzing it, one may find that nothing remains.

On the other hand, some philosophers argue that ideas or knowledge are innate, meaning they are
naturally present in the human mind from birth. Rationalists, who support the theory of innate ideas,
assert that certain concepts are inherently embedded in the human mind, much like how songs are
embedded in a phonograph record and are only heard when the needle touches it, or how information
on a computer disk is displayed when inserted into a computer.

Contrarily, other philosophers, like John Locke, believe that the human mind at birth is like a blank slate
("tabula rasa"). According to this view, ideas and concepts are imprinted on the mind through
experiences and observations over time. Those who support this perspective are known as empiricists,
who argue that knowledge is acquired through experience.

Empiricists believe that all human knowledge is acquired, regardless of its source. Some thinkers
consider knowledge obtained through the senses and reasoning to be valid, while others regard
intuition and revelation as legitimate sources of knowledge. Epistemology examines all these sources
and methods through which we acquire knowledge. For example, perception is considered a form of
knowledge. When we perceive something and assign meaning to it, this process is known as perception.
The greater our perception, the more our knowledge increases. However, sensory knowledge can be
flawed; sometimes, we fall prey to illusions or delusions, interpreting what we perceive according to our
understanding, even though the reality might be different. For instance, when sunlight reflects off a road
on a hot day, we may perceive it as water from a distance, even though no water is actually present.
When we perceive something due to light or any other reason, we might lift our foot from a seemingly
bright or white spot, thinking it's water or something else, but in reality, it's just white clay. Similarly,
while traveling on a train, distant trees appear to be moving, even though it's us who are in motion, not
the trees. Likewise, our senses of smell, taste, and hearing can also be deceived, leading to illusions.
Such defects in our sensory perceptions prevent us from acquiring accurate knowledge.

(3) Axiology (‫)قدریات‬

In axiology, questions like "What is truth?" are explored. Axiology discusses the real value and standards
of anything that exists in the world. The sciences that deal with standards and measurements are known
as normative sciences. In philosophical thought, unlike science, conclusions are not universally or
definitively drawn, but rather there is room for the evolution of thought. Therefore, instead of providing
permanent and universal values for the entire world, different philosophers have different opinions
about a particular thing, theory, or concept. This diversity of thought leads to the development of
various systems of values and beliefs. The differences in people's desires, both in quantity and quality,
give rise to new and different philosophies. Most philosophers do not have a uniform way of thinking,
which has led to the establishment of different standards. The Greek sophist philosopher Protagoras
said, "Man is the measure of all things." This means that each person has their own standard of thinking
and forms opinions about things based on their understanding and intellect. There are three values
upon which normative sciences are based:

Values: - Goodness, - Beauty,- Truth

Truth (‫)صداقت‬

Truth relates to the accuracy of thought. The discussion on the correctness of thought gives rise to logic,
which establishes the rules of reasoning. The determination of standards related to beauty gives rise to
aesthetics, which deals with the principles of ugliness and beauty and their discussion. The standard of
goodness relates to the merits and demerits of a person's actions. If we consider these three values—
truth, beauty, and goodness—we find that there are only three normative sciences in the world. The
perspectives and purposes of these three normative sciences are entirely different. They are not
concerned with the existence or reality of things, but with their value. They do not tell us how things are
or were, but rather what their value is.

Standard Principles and Normative Sciences ( ‫)قدریات اور معیاری علوم‬

Normative sciences use these principles to assess the value of things. These standards are values that
introduce the highest and most refined ways of thinking about life.

Normative Sciences (‫ )معیاری علوم‬in Axiology (‫)قدریات‬:

- Ethics,- Aesthetics, - Logic

(i) Logic (‫)منطق‬:

Logic is a normative science that examines the validity of thought and studies the laws of correct
reasoning.
Logic is a science that studies the laws of valid thought.

Logic teaches us how thought should be. It deals with the outcomes of thought and evaluates their
validity or invalidity. Logic studies thought from a normative perspective.

The word "logic" derives from the Greek word "logos," which means "language" or "reason." Logic is
concerned with thought, while grammar deals with language. Since there is a deep connection between
thought and language, logic and grammar are interrelated. Logic helps in formulating grammatical rules
and studies the validity of concepts, judgments, and arguments. Its main function is to examine the
correctness of thought.

The science of logic enhances our ability to think and reason clearly and correctly. By understanding the
laws of thought and reasoning, we can avoid misleading arguments and fallacies. Every science requires
correct thought and reasoning, and establishing the rules for this is the job of logic. Therefore, logic can
be considered the "science of sciences."

In everyday life, logic is extremely useful. Our correct communication is often based on implicit
reasoning, while incorrect thoughts occur without the rules of logic. We unconsciously or consciously
apply the principles of logic in our daily conversations and arguments. Teachers, lawyers, preachers, and
speakers constantly use logic. A lawyer, for instance, provides logical arguments in court to prove
whether a crime is right or wrong, and the judge's decision based on these arguments is also a logical
conclusion.

Logic is the science that provides the rules of thought without which correct reasoning is impossible. The
validity of thought means that it does not contradict itself and aligns with the facts. If there is no self-
contradiction in thought, it has formal validity. If the thought corresponds to facts, it has material
validity.

Formal Validity (‫)صوری صحت‬:

Formal validity examines whether thought is consistent with itself.

Material Validity (‫)مادی صحت‬:

Material validity checks if thought corresponds to reality. Material validity assesses whether a thought
aligns with external reality.

Based on these two aspects of validity, logic is divided into two branches:

1. Deductive Logic (‫)منطق استخراجیہ‬

2. Inductive Logic (‫)منطق استقرائی‬

Deductive Logic (‫)منطق استخراجیہ‬:

Deductive logic examines only the formal validity of reasoning. It assumes the given premises or
propositions are correct and checks whether the conclusion logically follows from these premises.

In deductive logic, the hidden conclusion is necessarily drawn from the given premises or propositions.
The task of deductive logic is to verify the formal correctness of premises or propositions and their
conclusions. For example:
- All humans are mortal.

- Socrates is a human.

- Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

In this case, the third sentence (conclusion) is derived from the first two sentences (premises) and is
hidden within them. When the first premise, "All humans are mortal," is combined with the second
premise, "Socrates is a human," the conclusion "Therefore, Socrates is mortal" inevitably follows. This is
an example of formal validity according to deductive logic, and the conclusion is correct.

However, if the first premise were "All humans are trees" and the second premise "All students are
humans," the following conclusion would be drawn:

- All humans are trees.

- All students are humans.

- Therefore, all students are trees.

Since deductive logic is concerned with formal validity—examining the structure and form of the
argument—this reasoning is considered valid according to deductive logic principles. The conclusion
"Therefore, all students are trees" is formally correct, even though the premises are false. Here are a
few more examples:

1. All trees are green.

This is a tree.

Therefore, this tree is green.

Examples of Deductive Logic:

2. All red mangoes of this tree are ripe.

Here, the mangoes from this tree are red.

Therefore, all mangoes are ripe.

3. All students of M.A. are present.

Jira is an M.A. student.

Therefore, Jira is present.

In these examples, the third sentence (conclusion) logically follows from the premises, adhering to the
principles of deductive logic. Deductive logic typically deduces specific conclusions from general
premises.

Inductive Logic (‫)منطق استقرائی‬:

Inductive logic assesses the material validity of reasoning, where conclusions are based on probabilities.
In this approach, specific facts are observed to infer general conclusions. Inductive logic moves from
particular observations to general statements. It involves confirming facts and discovering relationships
between them. Examples of inductive logic include:

- Zaid is mortal, Bakar is mortal, and Omar is mortal.

Therefore, all humans are mortal.

In this example, observing one person dying, then another, and then another leads to a general
conclusion that all humans are mortal. Similarly, if you buy a pen from a shop and it works fine, then buy
another that works fine, and then a third or fourth that also works fine, you may conclude that all pens
from that shop work well. In inductive logic, facts are studied, and their material validity is checked
before arriving at a general conclusion. For example:

- One crow is black, another is black, a third is black, and a fourth is black.

Therefore, all crows are black.

The second sentence is the general conclusion drawn according to the principles of inductive logic,
following the verification of the material validity of the observed facts.

(ii) Aesthetics (‫)جمالیات‬

Aesthetics is also a normative science that determines the standards of beauty and aesthetics. It is
concerned with the qualities and values related to beauty and art. Aesthetics examines what is
considered beautiful and what is considered ugly from a normative perspective.

The knowledge gained through our senses, especially through sight, is highly significant in aesthetics. For
instance, a beautiful painting by an artist or a poem or ghazal by a poet can provide profound aesthetic
satisfaction. Artists and poets make efforts to achieve aesthetic pleasure through their work. In
aesthetics, the value of beautiful (beautiful) and ugly (ugly) things is discussed. Sometimes, objects
appear as they truly are, while at other times, our mood or discomfort can affect how we perceive
beauty.

Aesthetics decides the beauty or ugliness of knowledge obtained from any source and establishes
criteria. For example, the scenic beauty of the mountains in Murree is appreciated for its aesthetic
value. The pleasantness of a fragrance or the unpleasantness of a smell are issues addressed by
aesthetics. Similarly, whether a sound is pleasant or noisy is also a subject of aesthetics. Thus, aesthetics
is a normative science that differentiates between beauty and ugliness through analysis and
observation. It studies the criteria of beauty, the principles governing it, and the differences in
emotional responses, such as the rapid passage of time in moments of joy versus the slow passage of
time in moments of sorrow. The concept of comedy, where humor is incorporated into conversations or
situations, also falls under aesthetics.

(iii) Ethics (‫)اخالقیات‬

Ethics studies the standards of conduct. What is good? What is bad? What actions are correct and which
are incorrect? Ethics evaluates whether a person performs good deeds or bad deeds. According to
Professor John Dewey, ethics is a normative science that examines the perspectives of good and evil or
right and wrong concerning character.
The English word "ethics" derives from the Greek word "ethos," which literally means customs or
character. Similarly, the Latin word "moral," derived from "mores," also refers to customs and manners.
Thus, ethics can be understood as the set of customs or norms that a person, group, family, tribe, or
nation adopts, reflecting their moral principles.

Ethics is a normative science that evaluates human character based on principles of good and right. It
gathers disparate and inconsistent information about behavior from society, organizes it systematically,
and establishes standards and norms. According to Professor Rogers in his book History of Ethics, ethics
is defined as the science that provides principles for determining the true and genuine value of human
character's purposes. Similarly, Professor Lillie views ethics as a normative science that studies human
character in terms of good and evil or right and wrong.

Human character has two main aspects: internal and external. The internal aspect includes motives,
intentions, and purposes, while the external aspect pertains to physical actions and behaviors. In ethics,
both the good and bad sides of an individual's actions are examined. Generally, the refinement and
outward appearance of external behavior are not considered the sole criteria for ethical judgment.
Instead, the focus is on the individual's intentions to determine whether their behavior is right or wrong.
Therefore, both the outward appearance and the inner character are essential to consider. The internal
aspect of character is often regarded as more significant than the external. In ethics, the internal and
external aspects of a person's character are evaluated, making it a normative science.

Philosophical Approach (‫)فلسفیانہ نقطہ نظر‬

Philosophy focuses on the fundamental nature of knowledge and existence, seeking to understand the
interconnectedness of everything in the universe. It involves examining and analyzing ideas to reach
deeper insights into reality. This approach is characterized by the following:

1. Inquiry and Analysis: Philosophers ask fundamental questions about what, why, and how things are
the way they are. They seek to understand the underlying principles and causes behind phenomena.
This method of questioning and probing is known as the philosophical approach.

2. Critical Examination: Philosophical methods often involve rejecting established theories in favor of
developing new ones. Philosophers do not accept ideas without scrutiny but instead critically assess and
revise them based on reason and evidence.

3. Logical Reasoning: Philosophy relies on logical reasoning rather than emotional or unexamined
beliefs. It involves using rational thought to explore and understand complex concepts.

4. Development of New Theories: Philosophers aim to create comprehensive theories by integrating

facts from various disciplines into a coherent system. This includes refining and evolving theories based
on ongoing analysis and discussion.

5. Avoiding Dogmatism: Philosophy avoids dogmatism and narrow-mindedness. It values open-

mindedness and the continuous development of ideas. Philosophers strive to look beyond the obvious
and explore deeper truths through critical and reflective thought.

6. Universality: According to the Greek philosopher Plato, a philosopher is one who views all time and
space. This perspective implies that philosophy encompasses a broad, universal view of knowledge and
existence.
7. Future Inquiry: Philosophy leaves room for future inquiry and development. It acknowledges that
current theories and results may be subject to change as new insights are gained.

In essence, the philosophical approach is a method of deep, systematic inquiry that uses logic and
reason to explore the fundamental nature of reality and knowledge. It is a dynamic and evolving
discipline that seeks to uncover the ultimate truths about existence and our understanding of it.

Criticism and Speculation in Philosophy

Philosophy’s most important task is analysis. Through analysis, theories, concepts, and objects can be
broken down into their components. Any thought or theory is subjected to a critical examination.
Criticism is thus an art that philosophy provides, discussing topics related to scientific and social sciences
and arts from a critical perspective.

Reflection and inquiry are inherent to human nature, which drives exploration and effort. Human
intellect continually reveals hidden thoughts throughout history. Unveiling these hidden aspects and
exposing secret truths is the goal and purpose of philosophy. Philosophy aids in encompassing the entire
universe. At times, it uses a speculative approach, and other times it involves degrees of revelation and
insight to advance knowledge. The most challenging problems of existence can only be elucidated
through a philosophical approach. Various historical periods, including ancient theories, Greek
philosophy, Islamic philosophy, modern philosophy, and post-modernism, have presented diverse
systems of thought. The insights and reflections of exceptionally talented philosophers have made this
possible. All religions trace the beginning of their philosophical thought and perspective to reflection
and contemplation. Connection with God, in a sense, is the epitome of intellectual endeavor. Philosophy
offers explanations through contemplation. Whether something exists in the universe, its nature,
essence, value, and purpose can only be clarified through philosophy. Philosophy clarifies aspects of life,
life after death, evolution, beginnings and ends, social, economic, ethical, political, scientific, and cosmic
dimensions.

Alfred Weber's view is that philosophy is a search for a comprehensive view of nature and an attempt at
a universal explanation:

Similarly, the renowned thinker William James states:

"Philosophy is clearly an extraordinary effort to think deeply."

This means that philosophy interprets the hidden truths of the world through intellectual approaches.
Through philosophical speculation and critical methods, facts are discovered. Throughout history, there
has always been a being who advances any branch of thought to creative and investigative heights. In
fields like physics, chemistry, botany, ethics, logic, psychology, epistemology, and astronomy, philosophy
plays a crucial role in discovering the ultimate causes of the universe.