COM 224 — Networking Assignment
Networking Assignment
Server Reliability, the OSI Model, IPv4/IPv6, and IP Address Classes
1. Server Reliability, Availability, and Data Integrity
These three concepts together form the backbone of what is often called RAS (Reliability,
Availability, Serviceability) in server design, with data integrity as a closely related fourth pillar.
Reliability
Reliability refers to a server's ability to perform its intended functions consistently, without
failure, over a specified period of time. A reliable server runs for long stretches without crashing,
freezing, or producing errors. Key contributors include:
• Quality hardware components — enterprise-grade processors, RAM (often ECC
memory), and storage devices designed for continuous operation.
• Redundant components — redundant power supplies, redundant network cards, and
RAID configurations, so the failure of one component doesn't bring down the whole
system.
• Regular maintenance — applying patches, monitoring hardware health, and replacing
aging components before they fail.
• Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) — a metric used to measure expected reliability;
the higher the MTBF, the more reliable the server.
Availability
Availability refers to the proportion of time a server is operational and accessible to users when
needed, usually expressed as a percentage (e.g., "99.99% uptime," often called "four nines"). It
is achieved through:
• Failover systems and clustering — if one server fails, another automatically takes
over with minimal or no downtime.
• Load balancing — distributing traffic across multiple servers so no single machine is
overwhelmed.
• UPS and backup generators — ensuring the server stays on even during power
outages.
• Disaster recovery planning — having offsite backups and recovery procedures so
service can resume quickly after a catastrophic event.
Formula: Availability = Uptime / (Uptime + Downtime).
Data Integrity
Data integrity refers to the accuracy, consistency, and trustworthiness of data stored on or
processed by the server throughout its lifecycle, ensuring data isn't corrupted, altered, or lost.
Measures include:
• Checksums and hashing — verifying data hasn't changed unexpectedly during storage
or transmission.
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COM 224 — Networking Assignment
• RAID configurations — protecting against data loss from disk failure.
• Regular backups — ensuring a clean copy exists elsewhere even if data is lost or
corrupted.
• Access controls and authentication — preventing unauthorized users from modifying
or deleting data.
• Transaction logging and database constraints — ensuring operations either fully
complete or fully roll back, preserving consistency (ACID properties).
• Error-checking protocols — such as parity checks and cyclic redundancy checks
(CRC) during data transfer.
A server can be highly available but unreliable, or lack data integrity even while online.
Organizations aim to optimize all three together because a weakness in any one undermines
trust in the entire system.
2. Functions of Each Layer of the OSI Model
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a conceptual framework developed by ISO
that standardizes network communication into 7 layers. A common mnemonic for remembering
the layers top-down is "All People Seem To Need Data Processing."
Layer 7 — Application
Closest to the end user; provides network services directly to applications. Handles protocols
such as HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, SMTP, and DNS, and is responsible for identifying communication
partners and resource availability.
Layer 6 — Presentation
Acts as the network's "translator," ensuring data from one system's application layer is readable
by another's. Handles data translation/formatting (e.g., character encoding),
encryption/decryption, and compression.
Layer 5 — Session
Manages and controls connections (sessions) between computers: establishing, maintaining,
and terminating sessions, synchronizing communication with checkpoints, and managing
dialogue control.
Layer 4 — Transport
Responsible for end-to-end communication: breaks data into segments and reassembles them
at the destination, provides error checking and reliable delivery (TCP) or fast connectionless
delivery (UDP), and handles flow control.
Layer 3 — Network
Responsible for logical addressing and routing: moves packets across multiple networks using
IP addresses, performs packet forwarding and fragmentation. Key devices: routers.
Layer 2 — Data Link
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COM 224 — Networking Assignment
Responsible for node-to-node data transfer within the same network segment: organizes bits
into frames, uses MAC addresses, performs error detection (CRC), and manages flow control
between directly connected nodes. Key devices: switches.
Layer 1 — Physical
Deals with the actual physical connection: transmits raw bits over cables, radio waves, or fiber,
and defines hardware specifications such as cable types, voltages, and connectors. Key
devices: hubs, repeaters, NICs.
Summary Table
Layer Name Key Function Examples
7 Application User-facing network services HTTP, FTP, SMTP
6 Presentation Translation, encryption, compression SSL/TLS, JPEG
5 Session Session establishment & management NetBIOS, PPTP
4 Transport Reliable end-to-end delivery TCP, UDP
3 Network Logical addressing & routing IP, Routers
2 Data Link Physical addressing & framing MAC, Switches
1 Physical Raw bit transmission Cables, Hubs
3. The Terms IPv4 and IPv6
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4)
IPv4 is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol and the first deployed for widespread use,
dominating internet routing since the 1980s.
• Address format — 32-bit address written as four decimal numbers (0–255) separated
by dots, e.g. [Link] (dotted-decimal notation).
• Address space — approximately 4.3 billion (2^32) unique addresses; growth in
connected devices has led to IPv4 address exhaustion.
• Header size — simpler header (20–60 bytes).
• Address classes — divided into Classes A, B, C, D, and E (see Question 4).
• Security — no built-in security; relies on add-ons such as IPSec.
• Configuration — often manual or via DHCP, and frequently uses NAT (Network
Address Translation) to let multiple devices share one public address.
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6)
IPv6 was developed by the IETF mainly to resolve IPv4 address exhaustion and improve on its
design.
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COM 224 — Networking Assignment
• Address format — 128-bit address written in hexadecimal, in eight groups of four digits
separated by colons, e.g. 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334 (consecutive
zero groups can be abbreviated once with ::).
• Address space — approximately 340 undecillion (2^128) addresses, effectively
eliminating exhaustion concerns.
• Header — simplified, fixed 40-byte header that improves routing efficiency.
• Built-in security — IPSec support is integrated by design.
• No NAT required — enough addresses exist for every device to have a unique public
address.
• Auto-configuration — supports stateless address autoconfiguration (SLAAC).
• No broadcast — uses multicast and anycast instead, improving network efficiency.
Comparison
Feature IPv4 IPv6
Address length 32-bit 128-bit
Format Dotted decimal Hexadecimal, colon-separated
Address space ~4.3 billion ~340 undecillion
Header More complex, variable Simplified, fixed
Security Optional (via IPSec) Built-in
NAT requirement Often needed Not needed
Configuration Manual / DHCP DHCP or SLAAC (auto)
4. Classes of IP Addresses
IPv4 addresses are divided into five classes (A–E) based on the value of the first octet. This
classful addressing was the original method of allocating address ranges, though it has largely
been replaced by CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing). It remains foundational to
understand.
Class A
Range: [Link] – [Link] | First bit: 0 | Default mask: [Link] (/8). First 8 bits =
network, remaining 24 bits = host, giving 126 networks with about 16.7 million hosts each.
Designed for very large organizations needing huge numbers of hosts.
Class B
Range: [Link] – [Link] | First bits: 10 | Default mask: [Link] (/16). First 16
bits = network, remaining 16 bits = host, giving 16,384 networks with about 65,534 hosts each.
Designed for medium-to-large organizations such as universities.
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COM 224 — Networking Assignment
Class C
Range: [Link] – [Link] | First bits: 110 | Default mask: [Link] (/24). First
24 bits = network, remaining 8 bits = host, giving about 2 million networks with 254 hosts each.
The most common class for small businesses and home networks.
Class D
Range: [Link] – [Link] | First bits: 1110. Reserved exclusively for multicasting —
sending data to multiple specific recipients simultaneously (streaming, video conferencing). Not
assigned to individual hosts.
Class E
Range: [Link] – [Link] | First bits: 1111. Reserved for experimental and research
purposes; not used in standard public networking.
Summary Table
Class Range Default Mask Purpose
A [Link] – [Link] /8 Very large networks
B [Link] – [Link] /16 Medium-sized networks
C [Link] – [Link] /24 Small networks
D [Link] – [Link] N/A Multicasting
E [Link] – [Link] N/A Experimental / Research
Note: The range [Link] – [Link] is reserved separately for loopback addresses
(e.g., [Link], used by a device to refer to itself).
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