1.
Fundamentals of Geometry
Point, Line, and Plane
Point: A precise location in space, denoted by a capital letter (e.g., $A$). It has no size,
width, or depth.
Line: A straight path of points that extends infinitely in two opposite directions. Denoted
as $\overleftrightarrow{AB}$.
Plane: A flat, two-dimensional surface that extends infinitely in all directions.
Line Segments and Rays
Line Segment: A measurable part of a line bounded by two distinct end points. Denoted
as $\overline{AB}$.
Ray: A part of a line that starts at one endpoint and extends infinitely in one direction.
Denoted as $\overrightarrow{AB}$.
2. Angles and Lines
Angle Classifications
Angles are formed by two rays sharing a common endpoint (the vertex) and are measured in
degrees or radians.
Acute Angle: $0^\circ < \theta < 90^\circ$
Right Angle: $\theta = 90^\circ$
Obtuse Angle: $90^\circ < \theta < 180^\circ$
Straight Angle: $\theta = 180^\circ$
Angle Pairs
Complementary Angles: Two angles whose sum is exactly $90^\circ$.
Supplementary Angles: Two angles whose sum is exactly $180^\circ$.
Vertical Angles: Opposite angles formed by the intersection of two lines. Vertical angles
are always equal ($\angle 1 = \angle 2$).
Parallel Lines Cut by a Transversal
When a line (the transversal) intersects two parallel lines, specific angle relationships emerge:
Corresponding Angles: Equal to one another (e.g., top-left matches top-left).
Alternate Interior Angles: Equal to one another, located between the parallel lines on
opposite sides of the transversal.
Consecutive Interior Angles: Supplementary (sum to $180^\circ$), located between the
parallel lines on the same side of the transversal.
3. Polygons and Triangles
Triangles ($\triangle$)
A three-sided polygon whose interior angles always sum to $180^\circ$.
Classification by Sides
Equilateral: Three equal sides; all interior angles are $60^\circ$.
Isosceles: Two equal sides; angles opposite those sides are also equal.
Scalene: No equal sides; all angles are different.
Classification by Angles
Acute: All angles are less than $90^\circ$.
Right: Contains one $90^\circ$ angle. The side opposite the right angle is the
hypotenuse.
Obtuse: Contains one angle greater than $90^\circ$.
Right Triangle Theorems
Pythagorean Theorem: In any right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse ($c$)
equals the sum of the squares of the other two sides ($a$ and $b$):
$$a^2 + b^2 = c^2$$
4. Coordinate Geometry
Distance Formula
To find the distance $d$ between any two points $(x_1, y_1)$ and $(x_2, y_2)$ on a Cartesian
plane:
$$d = \sqrt{(x_2 - x_1)^2 + (y_2 - y_1)^2}$$
Midpoint Formula
To find the exact middle point $M$ of a line segment connecting $(x_1, y_1)$ and $(x_2, y_2)$:
$$M = \left( \frac{x_1 + x_2}{2}, \frac{y_1 + y_2}{2} \right)$$
5. Core Formulas: Perimeter, Area, and Volume
Shape Perimeter / Circumference Area
Rectangle $P = 2l + 2w$ $A = l \times w$
Triangle $P = \text{side}_1 + \text{side}_2 + \text{side}_3$ $A = \frac{1}{2}bh$
Circle $C = 2\pi r$ $A = \pi r^2$
3D Solid Volume
Rectangular Prism $V = l \times w \times h$
Cylinder $V = \pi r^2 h$
Sphere $V = \frac{4}{3}\pi r^3$