Polytechnic University of the Philippines

Open University System

Institute of Open and Distance Education
Sta. Mesa, Manila.

COURSE DESCRIPTION:

This course is designed to develop the students’ communicative competence and enhance their
understanding of the principles and practices of communication in various context. This course
covers communication theories, effective writing, speaking and presentation skills, and the role
of communication in a globalized society.

Course Learning Outcomes (CLOs):

By the end of the course, students should be able to:

1. Demonstrate an understanding of principles and elements of communication.

2. Analyze the role of culture and context in communication.
3. Use multimodal approach for effective communication in different settings.
4. Apply communication strategies in academic, professional, and social environments.
5. Develop effective verbal, non-verbal, and written communication skills.
6. Practice ethical and responsible communication in various platforms.

Program Learning Outcomes (PLOs)

This course contributes to the following Program Learning Outcomes:

1. Critically examine and evaluate diverse communication contexts including audience,

purpose, and medium to determine the most effective communication strategies.
2. Develop proficiency in written, oral, visual communication, tailored to specific contexts
and audiences.
3. Advocate for social causes, raise awareness about community issues, and facilitate public
discourse.
4. Utilize various communication technologies effectively and ethically, including digital
media, online platforms, and presentation software.
5. Develop the ability to stay informed about communication trends and best practices.
6. Demonstrate effective communication skills across diverse platforms and purposes, and
learn to communicate clearly and persuasively facilitating teamwork and collaboration.
7. Demonstrate effective and ethical communication skills in which they can communicate
with integrity, respect, and responsibility, avoiding plagiarism, misinformation, and other
unethical practices.
8. Develop the ability to adapt their communication strategies to changing circumstances
and overcome communication barriers.
9. Analyze international communication issues, participate in cross-cultural communication
activities, and develop awareness of diverse perspective.
 MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

LESSONS:

1. Definition and importance of communication

1.1 Elements and process of communication.
2. Communication Models

Learning Outcomes:

• Define communication and its significance.

• Identify the elements and process of communication.
• Describe various communication models.
• Assess personal communication strengths and areas for improvement.

LESSON 1: Definition and Importance of Communication

Before – Reading Questions:

1. Why is communication important to you?
2. Why is communication important to society?
3. Why do you think communication skills are considered to be essential in being a
good citizen?

“Communication - the human connection - is the key to personal and career success.” (Paul J.
Meyer)
Communication is the exchange of meanings between individuals through common system
of symbols (Britannica, 2023). However, the study of communication has intrigued scholars from
ancient Greece to modern times, as it often intersects with other disciplines and is frequently
perceived as a fundamental and inherent process. In 1928, I.A. Richards, an English literary critic
and author, offered one of the first and best definitions of communication as an independent
aspect of human enterprise. Richards expounded that communication happens when one mind
acts upon its environment and influences another mind. In the other mind, an experience
happens, like the experience in the first mind, and is caused partly by that experience. Richards's
definition is both general and rough but its application to nearly all kinds of communication
including those between humans and animals separated the contents of messages from the
process in human affairs by which this message is transmitted.

Metts (2004), on the other hand, argued that communication is based on a process in which
messages, whether intentional or unintentional, create meaning. However, communication can
also be constrained based on the mechanism adopted. For example, in a country where
totalitarian and dictatorship regimes, freedoms of speech and expression are restrained.

However, according to Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) communication model,

communication consists of a sender, a message, a medium, a receiver, and feedback. Yet, the
effectiveness of communication depends on various factors, including clarity, context, and the
ability to decode and encode messages.

Moreover, communication or the exchange of information, ideas, and feelings, is more

than a transactional process; it is the lifeblood of human communication and the foundation of
social functions. Its significance can be broken down into two fundamental aspects: its effect on
the individual and its pivotal role in society’s creation and maintenance.

At the individual level, effective communication is fundamental for:

1. Building and Maintaining Relationship.

Humans are inherently societal creatures; thus, communication allows us to form
bonds, express affection, resolve conflicts, and build trusts. A simple conversation with
a friend can strengthen a relationship, while clear and empathetic communication
within a family can foster understanding and harmony. Studies in psychology
consistently demonstrate the link between positive communication and strong
interpersonal communication, which contribute to individual well-being and happiness.
2. Personal and Professional success
 Clear and persuasive communication is important for academic achievement, career
advancement, and leadership. A student who can articulate their ideas effectively in
class discussion and written assignments are more likely to succeed academically. In
the workplace, strong communication skills are vital for teamwork. Employers
consistently rank communication skills among the most sought-after qualities in
candidates, because the ability to convey information accurately and persuasively is
crucial for professional effectiveness.
3. Emotional and Psychological Well-being
Communication provides an outlet for expressing emotions, seeking support, and
processing experiences. Talking to a therapists or trusted friend can help cope with
stress, anxiety, and other emotional challenges. Research in psychology, shows that
open and honest communication can reduce feelings of isolation and promote
emotional resilience.
4. Information and Knowledge Acquisition
Communication is the primary way we learn and acquire knowledge. From reading book
and listening to lectures to engaging in online discussions. Communication, therefore,
allows us to access and share information. The ability to understand and interpret
information is essential for critical thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making.

On a societal scale, communication is important for:

1. Social Cohesion and Integration

Shared language and communication norms facilitate understanding and cooperation
among diverse groups. For example, public discourse on important social issues, such as
healthcare or education, allows for the exchange of ideas and the development of
consensus. Therefore, effective communication helps to bridge cultural and social divides
promoting a sense of shared identity and belonging.
2. Political Participation and Governance
Open and transparent communication is essential for democratic processes, allowing
citizens to participate in public discourse and hold their leaders accountable. Democratic
 societies rely on the free flow of information and ideas to ensure the government is
responsive to the needs of the people.
3. Economic Development and Innovation
Communication facilitates the exchange of ideas, the coordination of resources, and the
dissemination of knowledge, all of which are essential for economic growth. The internet
and other communication technologies have revolutionized global commerce, enabling
business to connect with customers and partners around the world. The rapid
dissemination of technological advancements and business strategies allows for faster
economic growth, and the ability of workforce to communicate efficiently increases
productivity.
4. Cultural Transmission and Preservation
Communication is the primary means by which cultural values, traditions, and knowledge
are passed down from generation to generation. Storytelling, music, and art are all forms
of communication that play a vital role in preserving and transmitting cultural heritage.
Thus, societies maintain their unique identities and histories through sharing of cultural
narratives and practices, which rely heavily on communication.
5. Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding
Dialogue and negotiation are essential for resolving conflicts and building peaceful
relationships between individuals, groups, and nations. Diplomatic talks between
countries can help prevent or resolve international conflicts. Therefore, communication
allows parties in conflict to understand each other’s perspective, identify common
grounds, and find mutually acceptable solutions.
6. Responding to Crisis
During the time of crisis, clear and timely communication is crucial for disseminating
information, coordinating responses, and providing support to affected communities.
During natural disasters, public service announcements (PSA) and emergency broadcasts
help to inform the public about safety measures and available resources. Accurate and
rapid information dissemination save lives and helps mitigate the impact of disasters.
 In conclusion, communication is an intricate and multifaceted process that shapes every
aspect of our lives. From the most intimate personal relationships to the most complex workings
of global society, communication is the foundation upon which human interaction and progress
are built. Moreover, it is a mistake to believe that communication is simple process although
people communicate with one another every day, yet the real question is whether the ideas
expressed are comprehended by another. When messages are lost in translation, communication
breakdown happens and these have led to a plethora of problems.

Hence, effective communication can breach peace, spark revolutions, and affect change in
government. However, to communicate properly, one cannot simple strive to express oneself
and leave understanding to fate; one must also learn how to organize one’s thoughts, control
one’s emotions, use one’s word to articulate concepts and arguments, and express oneself in the
best way possible (Uychoco & Santos, 2019).

LESSON 1.1: Elements and Process of Communication

The communication process can be defined as the exchange of information or messages

among two or more individuals. This process encompasses several key components: a sender
who conveys a message, a medium for transmitting the message, and a receiver who interprets
it. For effective communication, it is crucial that all parties involved can actively engage in this
exchange and accurately comprehend each other’s messages. This requires not only a common
language but also an awareness of context, non-verbal cues, and cultural nuances. When the flow
of information encounters obstacles—such as misunderstandings, language barriers, or
emotional factors—or if any participant finds it challenging to express their thoughts clearly, the
communication can falter. This breakdown may lead to confusion, frustration, and a failure to
convey the intended message.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

The sender is the individual who encodes and transmits a message to a receiver through a
specific channel. As the initiator of communication, the sender plays a crucial role in the process.
For example, a manager who sends an email to employees regarding a new company policy is
acting as the sender since they are the one starting the communication.

The message refers to the specific meaning, content, or information that the sender wishes
to convey and for the receiver to understand. Messages can be intentional or unintentional,
written or spoken, and may include both verbal and non-verbal elements. For instance, when you
see a friend walking towards you on campus and you make eye contact, wave, smile, and say
"hello," you are delivering an intentional message that is both spoken and non-verbal.

The channel is the method or means of communication that the sender uses to send a
message to the receiver. The most common channels used in human communication are verbal
and non-verbal. Verbal communication relies on language and includes speaking, writing, and
sign language. In contrast, non-verbal communication encompasses gestures, facial expressions,
paralanguage, and touch. Additionally, individuals utilize mediated channels, such as television,
cellphones, radios, and computers, which can combine both verbal and non-verbal
communication. For example, a customer service representative assisting a client over the phone
is using a mediated channel (the phone) that relies on verbal communication.

The receiver is the individual who receives the message. They are the target audience
responsible for interpreting the message. The receiver must also decode the message in a way
that is meaningful to them. For instance, when you see your friend make eye contact, smile,
wave, or say "hello" as you pass by, you are receiving a message intended for you. In this scenario,
the receiver must decode both the verbal and non-verbal communication in a manner that
resonates with them.

Feedback is the response from the receiver, which helps the sender assess understanding
and adjust the message if necessary. An example of feedback is a student asking a follow-up
question after a lecture.

Noise refers to anything that disrupts the sending or receiving of a message. Noise can be
external (such as the sounds of buses, loud music, or construction jackhammers) or internal (such
as physical pain, psychological stress, or nervousness). Noise can complicate the encoding and
decoding of messages, making communication less effective.

Illustration by Lumen Learning

LESSON 2: Communication Models

One way to understand the communication process is by examining the various

communication models available. According to Denis McQuail and Sven Windahl (2013), a model
aims to illustrate the main elements of any structure or process, as well as the relationships
between these elements. It serves to clarify complex or ambiguous information by presenting it
in a simplified manner.

In their book, "Communication for Society: Purposive Communication," Uychoco and

Santos (2019) provide an in-depth analysis of four distinct models of communication (Aristotle,
Shannon-Weaver, Schramm – Osgood, and White). These models serve to illustrate the various
aspects and dynamics of communication, exploring how messages are conveyed, received, and
interpreted in different contexts. Through this comprehensive examination, Uychoco and Santos
enhance our understanding of how effective communication plays a crucial role in fostering
understanding within society.

Aristotle’s Communication Model

Aristotle, regarded as one of the most influential philosophers in Western thought,

developed a communication model that underscores the pivotal role of the audience in the
communication process. This model is primarily oriented towards the art of public speaking,
distinguishing it from interpersonal communication. Aristotle posits that effective speakers must
carefully tailor their messages to resonate with their specific audience and the context of the
occasion.

He emphasizes the need for speakers to consider factors such as the audience's values,
beliefs, and emotions, as well as the situational dynamics at play, to achieve a desired impact. By
adapting their rhetoric and choice of topics accordingly, speakers can enhance their
persuasiveness and foster a deeper connection with their listeners. Thus, Aristotle’s model
remains relevant in understanding the complexities of effective communication in various
settings.

However, Aristotle’s model is a one-way communication framework, where

communication flows from the speaker to the audience. One of the main criticisms of Aristotle’s
model is its lack of emphasis on feedback. It portrays the audience as relatively passive.

Aristotle Model of Communication is formed with five (5) basic elements:

• Speaker – the source of information.

• Speech – the content or information being communicated
• Occasion – the setting or situation in which the speech is given
• Audience – the receiver of information.
• Effect – the result of the speech. What the speaker wants to happen with the
audience.
 Aristotle advises speakers to tailor their speeches for different audiences, occasions, and
desired effects. The role of the speaker is crucial in public speaking. Before taking the stage, the
speaker must prepare the speech and analyze the audience's needs. Their words should influence
the audience's mindset and persuade them to embrace their ideas.

Imagine a political candidate named Alex delivering a speech to a crowd at a campaign rally.
Alex is responsible for crafting a persuasive and effective message focused on key campaign
promises, such as improving healthcare, boosting the economy, and ensuring public safety. The
goal of the speech is to influence and persuade the audience.

The attendees at the rally, who are potential voters, listen to the speech and react based
on their beliefs and perspectives. The rally takes place in a public square just a week before the
election, when emotions are high and people are eager to hear solutions to pressing issues. The
setting and timing play a significant role in how the message is received.

If Alex delivers the speech convincingly, using logical arguments (logos), emotional appeals
(pathos), and demonstrating credibility (ethos), the audience may be swayed to support and vote
for them.

Shannon – Weaver’s Model of Communication

The Shannon – Weaver model was created by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver (Flores,
2016). Shannon was a research scientist at Bell Telephone Company. In his efforts to enhance
communication over telephone lines, he focused on minimizing distortion. Meanwhile, Warren
Weaver adapted Shannon’s concepts for telecommunications to interpersonal communication,
leading to the creation of one of the most popular communication models. This model is aptly
named the Shannon-Weaver Model.

According to Flores (2016; Uychoco & Santos, 2019), this is also often called the “Telephone
Model”, since it was developed because of the technology of the telephone and the experience
of "noise” coming from the switchboard.
 As the Shannon – Weaver model suggests, a message begins at the source and transmitted
using a signal towards a receiver. The message travels from the sender to the receiver while
encountering all kinds of noise (sources of interference). Lastly, the receiver of the message will
let the source know if the message is understood, which is referred to as feedback, and is a repeat
of the communication process but for the receiver back to the sender.

Illustration from [Link]

Components of Shannon – Weaver Model of Communication

• Sender is the source of the message. The sender has some information or content
material they want someone else to know. According to Marteney (n.d.), it is
generally acknowledged that the sender of the message has the primary
responsibility for the success or failure of the communication act because the
sender controls the variable of the communicative act compared to the receiver of
the message.
• Encoder is the transmitter which converts the message into signals, and encoding
is the process by which the source takes an idea or though and selects verbal and
 non-verbal symbols from their environment to send which accurately represents
the idea or thought.
• Message is the content of the communication. This is what the sender wants their
audience to know.
• Channel is the medium through which the message must pass.
• Decoder is the reception place which converts signals into message. A reverse
process of encode. Decoding is the ability to translate the message code into
symbols that the receiver can understand. The object is for the receiver to interpret
the message as the sender encoded it.
• Receiver is the target audience of the message. There may be a chosen or primary
audience for whom the message is intended, and a secondary audience, of all other
who gain access to the communication. While receivers, do not start the
communication process, they have accountability for their communication
behaviors with respect to listening and providing accurate feedback.
• Noise is anything that disrupts or distorts the communication process.
• Feedback is information that is sent back to the source.

For example, Emma, a project manager, needs to send an important email to her team
about an upcoming deadline. She types the email using her laptop, structuring the message
clearly so that it is understandable. The email is sent through the company’s email server and
delivered to the team member’s inboxes.

However, possible distractions or obstacles may affect the message, such as technical
issues (email server delay, spam filter), misinterpretation (unclear subject line, vague wording),
or external distractions (team members busy with other tasks).

On the other hand, each member opens the email and reads it, interpreting its meaning
based on their understanding. The team member processes the message and take action –
marking the deadline in their calendars and adjusting their tasks accordingly. Yet, one team
member replies, asking for clarification about a specific task. Then Emma responds with
additional details ensuring effective communication.
 With the given scenario, it illustrates how Shannon – Weaver’s model applies in a modern
work environment, highlighting how noise can interfere and how feedback helps ensure clarity.

Osgood – Schramm’s Model of Communication

When it comes to Schramm’s model of communication, there are two primary models
involved. The first one is built on the theories of Osgood, which is why this is also known as
Osgood – Schramm model.

Illustration by [Link]

Osgood-Schramm’s model of communication is a circular model that portrays

communication as a dynamic process between a sender and a receiver. In Wilbur Schramm’s
(1954) early model, communication is viewed as a process involving an encoder and a decoder.
A key aspect of this model is its consideration of how individuals interpret messages; Schramm
emphasized the significance of understanding message impact. He argued that a person's
background, experiences, and knowledge play a crucial role in shaping their interpretations.

Schramm also believed that messages are transmitted through a medium, allowing the
decoder to provide feedback to indicate that the message has been received. He asserted that
communication is incomplete without feedback from the receiver. Consequently, encoding and
decoding are essential for effective communication; any exchange lacking these processes or
feedback is neither effective nor complete.

The Osgood-Schramm Model of communication illustrates that messages can flow in two
directions. When a person decodes a message, they can then encode a response and send it back
to the original sender. This interaction can continue in a cyclical manner. This revised model
indicates that:

• Communication is not linear, but circular.

• Communication is reciprocal and equal.
• Messages are based on interpretations.
• Communication involves encoding, decoding, and interpreting.

Thus, this model illustrated that feedback is cyclical and communication is complex because
it accounts for interpretation. Moreover, it showcases the fact that we are active communicators,
and we are active in interpreting the messages that we receive.

Eugene White’s Stages of Oral Communication

The last model is Eugene White’s Stages of Oral Communication which is a comprehensive
framework that explains the complexities inherent in the communication process. Unlike
traditional models that primarily focus on the sender, message, channel, receiver, and feedback.
White’s model expands the scope to include socio-cultural factors, power dynamics, and the role
of technology in shaping communication dynamics.

According to White, it is possible to begin at any stage of his communication model. Many
people mistakenly believe that communication starts with thought, but this is not necessarily
true. Since the model is circular, it suggests that oral communication is a continuous process with
no definitive beginning or end. According to Flores (2016), one of White's most significant
contributions is the concept of feedback, which can only be effectively processed by the speaker
if they are attentive to the audience or listener. Therefore, the speaker must also observe the
listener’s verbal and non-verbal cues.
 Symbolizing

Thinking Expressing

Monitoring Transmitting

Feedbacking Receiving

Decoding

Moreover, White’s model is deeply intertwined with sociocultural factors because he

emphasizes that communication does not occur in isolation but is influenced by the cultural
norms, values, beliefs, and social structures prevalent in a given society. Thus, understanding the
socio-cultural context is crucial for interpreting messages accurately and navigating
communication effectively.

Apart from that, White acknowledges the inherent power dynamics that permeate
communication interactions in which power can manifest in various forms, including social
status, institutional authority, and access to resources. Therefore, these power differentials
influence how messages are transmitted, received, and interpreted. White also highlights the
importance of critically examining power dynamics to understand who holds the influence in
communication exchanges and how it shapes communication outcomes.

White also recognizes the significant impact of technology on communication patterns and
dynamics. Thus, the model explores how different communication channels, such as social
media, email, and video conferencing can shape the transmission and reception of messages and
their implications for interpersonal relationships and societal discourse.
 Lastly, he emphasizes that communication is an iterative process marked by continuous
feedback and adaptation. Feedback is crucial for refining messages, clarifying intentions, and
resolving misunderstandings. Moreover, the model demonstrates that effective communication
involves a dynamic cycle of receiving and responding to feedback, allowing individuals to adjust
their messages and approaches based on the context and the audience's reactions
([Link]).

In conclusion, communication is more than just a simple exchange between speaker and
listener; many factors affect it. First, think about how the message is structured and the context
it comes from. When you send a message, it’s important to include feedback to improve
understanding. Different kinds of noise can interrupt the message, so it's important to recognize
or avoid them. You should also consider cultural differences, technology, and how people
interpret your words. To communicate well, pay attention to how others react to your message
and be ready to adjust your approach, instead of just focusing on sharing your own thoughts
(Uychoco & Santos, 2019).

Lesson Activity # 1:

This activity is designed to help you become aware of your communication habits and to
encourage you to take steps to improve them. Effective communication is valuable skill that will
benefit you in all aspects of your life.

Communication Skills Self-Assessment Questions:

Instructions: For each statement, choose the answer that best reflects your typical behavior.
Rating Scale:
1 – Rarely 3 - Often
2 – Sometimes 4 – Always

Verbal Communication 1 2 3 4
I speak clearly and at an appropriate volume.
I use appropriate language for the audience I am addressing.
I organize my thoughts before speaking.
I stay on topic during conversations or presentations
I can explain complex ideas in a simple and understandable way.
I ask clarifying questions when I don’t understand something.
 I give relevant and constructive feedback to others.
Non – Verbal Communication 1 2 3 4
I maintain appropriate eye contact when speaking or listening.
I use facial expressions and body language that match my messages.
I am aware of my body language and how it might be perceived by others.
I use appropriate gestures to emphasize my points.
I am aware of my tone of voice and how it impacts my message.
Listening Skills 1 2 3 4
I actively listen to others without interrupting.
I pay attention to both verbal and non-verbal cues from the speaker.
I summarize or paraphrase what the speaker has said to ensure
understanding.
I avoid distractions when someone I speaking to me.
I show empathy and understanding when listening to others.
I avoid jumping to conclusions or making assumptions before the speaker is
finished.
Listening Skills 1 2 3 4
My written communication is clear and concise.
I use proper grammar and spelling in my written work.
I tailor my writing style to the intended audience.
I can effectively communicate through emails and messages.
I proofread my written work before submitting.
Interpersonal Communication 1 2 3 4
I am comfortable communicating with people from diverse backgrounds.
I can effectively work in a team and communicate with team members.
I can handle disagreements and conflicts in a respectful manner.
I am open to receiving feedback and suggestions from others.
I am able to adapt my communication style to different situations.

Reflection:
After completing the questionnaire, take some time to reflect on your responses:

• What are your strengths in communication?

• What areas do you feel you need to improve?
• What specific actions can you take to improve your communication skills?

References:

Admin, & Admin. (2014, July 10). OSGOOD- SCHRAMM MODEL OF COMMUNICATION.
Communication Theory. [Link]
communication/
Admin, & Admin. (2014b, July 10). Shannon and Weaver model of communication.
Communication Theory. [Link]
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Defining Communication | Intro to Communication + Public speaking. (n.d.).

[Link]

Gordon, G.N. (2024, December 9). communication. Encyclopedia Britannica.

[Link]

Libretexts. (2021, August 6). 2.4: Models of interpersonal communication. Social Sci LibreTexts.
[Link]
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nal_Communication/2.04%3A_Models_of_Interpersonal_Communication

The Process of Communication | Organizational Behavior and Human Relations. (n.d.).

[Link]
communication/

Uychoco, M.T., & Santos, M.L. (2018). Communication for Society: Purposive Communication.
Manila City: Rex Book Store, Inc.