Module: 6

Digital Instruments
• Comparison of analog and digital techniques;
• Digital voltmeter; Multimeters; Energy meter; Digital CRO; Frequency
counters; Measurement of frequency and time interval; Extension of
frequency range;
• Automation in digital instruments: Automatic polarity indication, automatic
ranging, automatic zeroing, fully automatic digital instruments;
• Computer controlled test systems; Virtual instruments.
Digital Instruments
 The instrument which represents the measured value in
the form of the digital number is known as the digital
instruments.
 It works on the principle of quantization. The quantization is
the process of converting the continuous input signal into a
countable output signal.
 The construction of the digital instrument is very complex,
and their cost is also very high.
 The digital instruments consume very less power as
compared to analogue instruments.
 The digital multimeter, digital voltmeter, digital frequency
meter, etc, are examples of digital instruments.

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

Important characteristic of Digital
Instruments
1. The accuracy of the digital electronic instrument
is very much high.
2. The digital instrument consists sensitive elements
which are easily reacted with the surrounding
temperature and humidity.
3. The input impedance of the digital instrument is
very high because of which it can draw very less
power.
4. The digital instrument is less portable.
5. The cost of the instrument is high.
6. The instrument is free from the parallax error.

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

Comparison of analog & digital instruments:
Aspect Analog Instruments Digital Instruments
Display the measured quantity as a Display the measured quantity
Definition
continuous physical movement in numerical (digit) form.
Display Type Scale with pointer (needle). LED/LCD/digital display.
Less accurate due to parallax and
Accuracy More accurate and precise.
mechanical errors.
Resolution Limited resolution. High resolution.
Reading
Parallax error possible. No parallax error.
Error
Response Slightly slower (depends on
Faster for dynamic changes.
Time sampling rate).
Power Usually does not require external
Requires external power supply
Requirement power
Cost Generally low cost. Slightly higher cost.
More maintenance due to moving Less maintenance (no moving
Maintenance
parts. parts).
Durability Less durable More durable and reliable.
Digital voltmeter (DVM), Digital
Example Analog voltmeter, ammeter, CRO.
Module: 6- Digital Instruments multimeter (DMM).
Digital voltmeter
 The digital voltmeter (DVM) displays measurements of dc or
ac voltages as discrete numerals instead of a pointer
deflection on a continuous scale as in analog devices.
 Numerical readout is advantageous in many applications
because it reduces human reading and interpolation
errors, eliminates parallax error, increases reading speed,
and often provides outputs in digital form suitable for further
processing or recording.
 Since the development and perfection DVM have been
drastically reduced so that DVMs can actively compete with
conventional analog instruments, both in portability and
price.
 The DVM’s outstanding qualities can best be illustrated by
quoting some typical operating and performance
characteristics.

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

Specifications
1. Input range: from ± 1.000000 V to ± 1,000.000 V, with
automatic range selection and overload indication.
2. Absolute accuracy: as high as ±0.005 per cent of the
reading.
3. Stability: short-term, 0.002 per cent of the reading for a 24-
hr period; long-term, 0.008 percent of the reading for a 6-
month period.
4. Resolution: 1 part in 106(1 microV can be read on the 1-V
input range).
5. Input characteristics: input resistance typically 10 Mil;
input capacitance typically 40 Pf.
6. Calibration: internal calibration standard allows calibration
independent of the measuring circuit; derived from stabilized
reference source.
7. Output signals: print command allows output to printer;
BCD (binary-coded-decimal) output for digital processing or
recording.

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

Types of DVM
(a) Ramp-type DVM

(b) Integrating DVM

(c) Continuous-balance DVM

(d) Successive-approximation DVM

Basic block diagram of DVM

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

 Ramp-type DVM
• The working the ramp-type DVM is based on the measurements of the time it
takes for linear ramp voltage to rise from 0 V to the level of input voltage, or
decrease from the level of the input voltage to zero.
• This interval of time is measured with an electronic time interval counter,
and the count is displayed as a number of digits. Construction
 It consists of
1. ranging and
attenuator circuit.
2. An input
comparator and
ground
comparator.
3. Ramp generator
and sample rate
multivibrator.
4. clock oscillator
and a gate circuit.
5. a counter and a
display device
Module: 6- Digital Instruments
Working
 At the starting, a ramp voltage is initiated; this voltage can be positive going or
negative going. The negative going ramp, shown in the above figure is
continuously compared with the unknown input-voltage.
 At the instant that the ramp voltage equals the unknown voltage of the input
comparator, generates a pulse which open a gate which is known as start pulse.
 The ramp voltage continues to decrease with time until it finally reaches 0 V at
that instant ground comparator generates an output pulses which closes the
gate is known as stop pulse.

Module:
WAVE FORM 6- DIAGRAM
Digital Instruments
OF DVM
Working
 An oscillator generates clock
pulses which are allowed to pass
through the gate to a number of
decade counting units [DCUs]
which totalise the number of
pulses passed through the gate.
 The decimal number, displayed
by the display device is a
measure of the magnitude of the
input voltage.
 The sample-rate MV circuit
provides an initiating pulse for
the ramp generator to start its
next ramp voltage.
 At the same time, a reset pulse
WAVE FORM DIAGRAM OF DVM
is generated which returns all
the DCUs to their zero state,
removing the display
momentarily from the display.

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

Self Study
(b) Integrating DVM

(c) Continuous-balance DVM

(d) Successive-approximation DVM

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

Digital multimeter
 The electronic measuring device which is capable of measuring
multiple electrical parameters and display it digitally is
called as digital multimeter.
 It can measure both AC and DC. Construction:
1. A rotary
switch and
constant
current source.
2. Calibrated
attenuator and
current to
voltage
converters.
3. Buffer amplifier
and rectifier
circuit.
4. ADC and
display device.
Block diagram of a digital multimeter (DMM)
Module: 6- Digital Instruments
Working of DMM
 First of all, the rotary switch is set at the parameter position
which is to be measured.
 When the switch is set at “Res” as shown in figure then a
connection is made to constant current source.
 Then the test resistor is connected to probe for measurement and
current from current source flows through buffer amplifier,
analog to digital converter .
 The ADC gives the corresponding digital value of the input
resistor.
 When switch is set for alternating voltage measurement the input
current passes through calibrated attenuator, rectifier circuit,
ADC, display device.
 Attenuator decreases strength of the input signal and
rectifier converts ac to dc.
 In this way the DMM works as per the setting of rotary switch.
Module: 6- Digital Instruments
Digital Energy Meter
 A Digital Energy Meter is an electronic instrument used to
measure electrical energy consumption in kilowatt-hour
(kWh).
It displays the energy usage in digital form and is widely used
in homes, industries, and commercial buildings.

Advantages Main Components

1. High accuracy 1. Current sensor (CT or shunt
2. No moving parts resistor)
3. Low power consumption 2. Voltage sensor (Potential
4. Tamper detection transformer or divider)
possible 3. Analog-to-Digital Converter
5. Can store historical data (ADC)
6. Supports remote 4. Microcontroller
monitoring (in smart 5. Display unit (LCD/LED)
meters 6. Memory for data storage
Module: 6- Digital Instruments
Block Diagram of Digital Energy (Smart)
Meter

Working
1. Voltage and current signals are sensed.
2. Signals are converted into digital form using ADC.
3. Microcontroller calculates power and energy.
4. Energy consumption is displayed in kWh.
5. Data may also be stored or transmitted (in smart meters).
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Digital storage oscilloscope

Construction
 Alternator writer amplifier & sample and hold circuit.
 ADC, trigger CRT and memory.
 Control logic unit, DAC and horizontal Amplifier

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

Working
 The Signal is amplified and attenuated and given to
the sample and hold circuit and trigger circuit.
 The output of sample and hold circuit is given to
the Analog to- Digital converter which converts our
analog signal into digital data.
 This digital data is given to memory which is given
to vertical deflection amplifier through D/A.
 The Control logic also gives another signed to CRT
through horizontal defection amplifier through D/A.
 By receiving both the signal CRT displays.

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

Digital storage oscilloscope
ADVANTAGES:-
 Infinite strong time.
 Easy to operate.
 Signature processing is possible.
 A number of traces can be stored.
 Display of work from is possible by retriggering.

Applications
 It can be used to measurement AC& DC.
 It can be used to measure frequency, time period, time interval
between two signals.
 It is used to give visual representation for a target of rader.

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

 Digital Frequency Meter
 The electronic device that measures the frequency of a signal and
displays it digitally is called a digital frequency meter.
 The input signal whose frequency is to be measured is first converted
into a pulse train such that each cycle possesses one pulse.
 Then the number of pulses, so generated, is counted with the help of a
circuit called an electronic counter.
 The number being displayed upon the display unit is a direct
representation of the frequency of the signal fed to the measurement
device because of the pulses being in a fixed interval of time.
 It is because of the fast action of the electronic counter that makes it
possible to measure very high frequencies

 Principle of Digital frequency meter

• The digital frequency meter works on the principle of conversion of
sinusoidal signal into continuous pulses. It has very close relationship
with measurement of time.

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

Construction

1. Amplifier and Schmitt trigger circuit.

2. Flip flop and crystal oscillator.
3. Time base selector, frequency divider network, decimal counter and
display unit. Module: 6- Digital Instruments
Working
 When the unknown input signal is applied to the amplifier
it amplifies the signal and feed it to the Schmitt
trigger.
 The Schmitt trigger converts the amplified input
signal into its corresponding pulses and give it to the
AND Gate.
 When Schmitt trigger output reaches at gate, the output
from flip flop also reaches at gate.
 The flip-flop output provides a precise time period for
which the counter counts the number of pulses, which
is displayed as the frequency of the input signal.

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

 Measurement of Time (Period Measurement)
 In some cases, it is necessary to measure the time period rather than the
frequency.
 This is especially true in the measurement of frequency in the low
frequency range.
 To obtain good accuracy at low frequency, we should take measurements
of the period, rather than make direct frequency measurements.
 The circuit used for measuring frequency (Fig.) can be used for the
measurement of time period if the counted signal and gating signal are
interchanged.
 The gating signal is derived from the unknown input signal, which
now controls the enabling and disabling of the main gate.
 The number of pulses which occur during one period of the unknown
signal are counted and displayed by the decade counting assemblies
 The only disadvantage is that for measuring the frequency in the low
frequency range, the operator has to calculate the frequency from the time
by using the equation
f= l/T.
Module: 6- Digital Instruments
Extension of Frequency Range Using Digital
Frequency Meter
 Prescaling (Frequency Division): High-speed divider circuits
(e.g., divide-by-2, 4, 8, or 10) are used to divide the high-
frequency input signal down to a range that can be handled by
standard electronic counters.
 Heterodyne Frequency Converter: A local oscillator and a
mixer are used to mix the high-frequency input signal with a
known, stable frequency. The difference (intermediate frequency)
is then measured by the DFM.
 Transfer Oscillator: This technique uses a lower-frequency,
stable, tunable oscillator to generate harmonics that are "zero-
beated" (mixed) with the unknown high-frequency signal.
 Period Measurement (for Low Frequencies): For very low
frequencies, measuring the period (T) and calculating (1/f)
provides higher resolution than direct counting, which is useful
at the lower end of the spectrum.

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

 Automation in digital instruments
 Automation in digital instruments refers to the automatic performance
of measurement functions without manual adjustment. Modern digital
instruments are designed with microprocessors and electronic control
circuits to improve accuracy, speed, and ease of operation.
 Key Features of Automation
1. Automatic Range Selection (Auto-ranging)
The instrument automatically selects the proper measurement range.
2. Automatic Data Processing
Built-in microprocessors perform calculations such as averaging, RMS value, peak
detection, etc.
3. Automatic Calibration
Some instruments perform self-calibration to maintain accuracy.
4. Data Logging and Storage
Measurements can be stored in internal memory for future reference.
5. Automatic Error Detection
Detects overload, wrong connections, or faulty conditions.
6. Remote Monitoring and Control
Can be connected to computers or networks for automated testing and monitoring.
Module: 6- Digital Instruments
Automatic Polarity Indication
 Automatic Polarity Indication is a
feature in digital instruments by which
the instrument automatically detects and
displays whether the input signal is
positive or negative.
 If the input polarity is reversed, the
instrument shows a minus (–) sign on the
display without changing the
connections.
 No need to manually check or reverse
connections.
 Prevents wrong readings and reduces
user error.

In DC measurements, voltage and current have polarity (+ or –).

If the connections are reversed:
• Analog instruments may deflect backward.
• Manual checking is required.
• Wrong readings may be recorded.
• Automatic polarity indication eliminates this problem.
Module: 6- Digital Instruments
Automatic Polarity Indication- Working
 The polarity indication is generally obtained from the
information in the ADC.
 For integrating ADCs, only the polarity of the integrated signal is
of importance. The polarity should thus be measured at the very
end of the integration period.
 As the length of the integration period is determined by counting
a number of clock pulses, it is logical to use the last count or
some of the last counts to start the polarity measurement.
 The output of the integrator is then used to set the polarity flip-
flop, the output of which is stored in memory until the next
measurement is made.

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

Automatic Ranging
 Automatic ranging (Auto-ranging) is a feature in digital
instruments in which the instrument automatically selects the
most suitable measurement range according to the magnitude of
the input signal.

• The instrument automatically selects the appropriate

measurement range.
• Eliminates the need for manual range selection.
• Provides better accuracy and resolution.
• Protects the instrument from overload conditions.

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

Module: 6- Digital Instruments
Automatic Ranging
 The object of automatic ranging is to get a reading with
optimum resolution under all circumstances (e.g. 170 m V
should be displayed as 170.0 and not as 0.170).
 Let us take the example of a 3Yz digit display, i.e. one with a
maximum reading of 1999. This maximum means that any
higher value must be reduced by a factor of 10 before it can be
displayed (e.g. 201 m Vas 0201).
 On the other hand, any value below 0200 can be displayed with
one decade more resolution (e.g. 195 mV as 195.0).
 In other words, if the display does not reach a value of 0200,
the instrument should automatically be switched to a more
sensitive range, and if a value of higher than 1999 is offered,
the next less sensitive range must be selected.

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

Automatic Zeroing
Automatic zeroing is a feature in digital instruments by which the
instrument automatically adjusts its output to read zero when the input
signal is zero. It eliminates internal offset errors and ensures accurate
measurement.
 In practical instruments, small unwanted voltages may appear due to:
• Internal amplifier offset voltage
• Temperature variations
• Drift in electronic components
• Noise in the circuit
 These small errors may cause the display to show a non-zero reading
even when no input is applied. Automatic zeroing corrects this problem.
 The instrument automatically adjusts the display to zero when there is
no input signal.
 Compensates for internal offset errors.
 Ensures higher measurement accuracy.
 Commonly used in digital voltmeters and digital multimeters.
Module: 6- Digital Instruments
Automatic Zeroing

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

Fully Automatic Digital Instruments
Fully Automatic Digital Instruments are measuring
instruments that perform all measurement operations
automatically without manual intervention.
 They automatically select range, detect polarity, perform
zero correction, process signals, and display the result.
 These instruments are controlled by microprocessors
or microcontrollers.
 May include data storage, self-calibration, and computer
interfacing
 Widely used in laboratories, industries, and automated
testing systems.

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

Main Features

1. Automatic Polarity Indication

Detects whether the input is positive or negative and
displays the sign automatically.
2. Automatic Ranging (Auto-ranging)
Selects the most suitable measurement range.
3. Automatic Zeroing (Auto-zero)
Eliminates internal offset errors and ensures accurate
readings.
4. Automatic Data Processing
Performs calculations such as:

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

Computer controlled test systems
 A Computer Controlled Test System (CCTS) is a measurement
and testing system in which a computer controls, monitors,
and analyzes the operation of electronic measuring instruments
automatically.
 The computer acts as the central controller for performing tests,
collecting data, processing results, and generating reports.

Basic Components Working

• Measuring instruments 1. The computer sends control
(DMM, Oscilloscope, commands to instruments.
Signal Generator, etc.) 2. Instruments perform
• Computer (PC or measurements.
workstation) 3. Measured data is sent back to the
• Interface (USB, LAN, computer.
GPIB, etc.) 4. The computer processes, stores,
• Software for control and and displays the results
data processing automatically.
Module: 6- Digital Instruments
Computer controlled test systems
Advantages Applications
• High accuracy and 1. Industrial product
repeatability testing
2. Research
• Fast testing
laboratories
• Automatic report
3. Automated Test
generation Equipment (ATE)
• Reduced human error 4. Quality control
• Suitable for large-scale systems
production testing

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

 Virtual Instruments (VI)
A Virtual Instrument is a software-based instrument where the
functions of traditional hardware instruments are performed
using a computer and specialized software.
 Instead of dedicated hardware, measurement and analysis are
done using software programs.

• A virtual instrumentation system is software that is used by the user to

develop a computerized test and measurement system, for controlling
an external measurement hardware device from a desktop
computer, and for displaying test or measurement data on panels in the
computer screen.
• The test and measurement data are collected by the external device
interfaced with the desktop computer.
• Virtual instrumentation also extends to computerized systems for
controlling processes based on the data collected and processed by a PC
based instrumentation system.

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

Block diagram and architecture of a virtual
instrument
1. Sensor module
2. Sensor interface
3. Processing module
4. Database interface
5. Information systems interface
6. User interface

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

Sensor Module- The sensor module performs signal conditioning
and transforms it into a digital form for further manipulation. A
sensor module principally consists of three main parts:
1. The sensor
2. The signal conditioning part
3. The A/D converter

Sensor Interface- There are many interfaces used for

communication between sensors modules and the computer.
According to the type of connection, sensor interfaces can be
classified as wired and wireless.
• Wired Interfaces are usually standard parallel interfaces,
such as GPIB, Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI),
system buses (PCI eXtension for Instrumentation PXI or VME
Extensions for Instrumentation (VXI), or serial buses (RS232
or USB interfaces).
• Wireless Interfaces are increasingly used because of
convenience. Typical interfaces include 802.11 family of
standards, Bluetooth, or GPRS/GSM interface.
Module: 6- Digital Instruments
Processing Module
• Integration of the general purpose microprocessors/microcontrollers
allowed flexible implementation of sophisticated processing
functions.
• As the functionality of a virtual instrument depends very little on
dedicated hardware, which principally does not perform any
complex processing, functionality and appearance of the virtual
instrument may be completely changed utilizing different processing
functions.
• Processing function used in virtual instrumentation may be
classified as analytic processing and artificial intelligence techniques

Database Interface
• Computerized instrumentation allows measured data to be stored for
off-line processing, or to keep records as a part of the patient record.
• There are several currently available database technologies that can
be used for this purpose.

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

Information System Interface
• Virtual instruments are increasingly integrated with other medical
information systems, such as hospital information systems.
• They can be used to create executive dashboards, supporting decision
support, real time alerts, and predictive warnings.
• Some virtual interfaces tool kits, such as LabVIEW, provide
mechanisms for customized components, such as ActiveX objects,
that allows communication with other information system, hiding
details of the communication from virtual interface code.

User Interface
• An effective user interface for presentation and control of a virtual
instrument affects efficiency and precision of an operator do the
measurements and facilitates result interpretation.
• User interfaces used in virtual instrumentation in four groups:
1. Terminal user interfaces
2. Graphical user interfaces
3. Multimodal user interfaces and
4. Virtual and augmented reality interfaces

Module: 6- Digital Instruments

Virtual Instruments versus Traditional
Instruments

Module: 6- Digital Instruments