Module: 2

Electrical and Electronic

Instruments
• Classification of instruments;
• Working principle of potentiometer;
• Design of analog voltmeter, ammeter using PMMC and MI;
• Ohm meter; Power factor meter; Q meter; Single phase wattmeter;
analog energy meter; Instrument transformers.
Classification of instruments
 An instrument is a
device in which we
can determine the
magnitude or value
of the quantity to
be measured.
 The measuring
quantity can be
voltage, current,
power and energy
etc.

2 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Classification of instruments
 Basic classification of measuring instruments:
1. Mechanical Instruments:- They are very reliable for
static and stable conditions. The disadvantage is they
are unable to respond rapidly to measurement of
dynamic and transient conditions.
2. Electrical Instruments:- Electrical methods of
indicating the output of detectors are more rapid than
mechanical methods. The electrical system normally
depends upon a mechanical meter movement as
indicating device.
3. Electronic Instruments:- These instruments have very
fast response. For example, a cathode ray oscilloscope
(CRO) is capable of following dynamic and transient
changes of the order of a few nanoseconds (10-9 sec).
3 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments
Classification of instruments
Absolute instruments or Primary Instruments-
 These instruments give the magnitude of the quantity
under measurement in terms of the physical constants of
the instrument.
 These instruments give the value of the electrical quantity
in terms of the absolute quantities (or some constants)
of the instruments and their deflections.
 In this type of instrument, no calibration or comparison
with other instruments is necessary.
 They are generally not used in laboratories.
 Examples of absolute instruments are: Tangent
galvanometer, Raleigh current balance, Absolute
electrometer.

4 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Classification of instruments
 Secondary instruments:-
 These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being
measured can only be determined by the output indicated by
the instrument.
 They are direct reading instruments. The quantity to be measured
by these instruments can be determined from the deflection of the
instruments.
 These instruments are calibrated by comparison with an
absolute instrument or another secondary instrument, which has
already been calibrated against an absolute instrument.
 The deflections obtained with secondary instruments will be
meaningless until they are calibrated.
 These instruments are used in general for all laboratory
purposes.
 Examples are: ammeters, voltmeter, wattmeter, energy meter,

5
etc. Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments
Classification of Secondary
Instruments
1. Digital Instrument

 The digital instrument gives the output in the numeric form.

 The instrument is more accurate as compared to the analogue
instrument because no human error occurs in the reading.

2. Analog instrument

 The instrument whose output varies continuously is known as

the analogue instrument.
 The analogue instrument has the pointer which shows the
magnitude of the measurable quantities.
 The analogue device classifies into two types.

6 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Classification of Analog instrument
 Classification based on the way they present the results
of measurements
1. Null Type:
 In a null-type instrument, a zero or null indication leads to
the determination of the magnitude of the measured
quantity.
 There is one known and one unknown quantity in use.
When the value of the known and the unknown measuring
quantities are equal, the pointer shows the zero or null
deflection.
 The instrument has high accuracy and sensitivity.
 The null deflection instrument is used in the
potentiometer and in galvanometer for obtaining the null
point.
7 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments
Classification of Analog instrument
2. Deflection Type Instrument

 The instrument in which the value of measuring quantity

is determined through the deflection of the pointer is
known as the deflection type instrument.
 The measuring quantity deflects the pointer of the
moving system of the instrument which is fixed on the
calibrated scale. Thus, the magnitude of the measured
quantity is known.
 The measured quantity produces some physical effect
which deflects or produces a mechanical displacement of
the moving system of the instrument.

8 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Classification of Deflection Type
Instruments
1. Indicating Instrument –
 The instrument which indicates the magnitude of the
measured quantity is known as the indicating instrument.
 The indicating instrument has the dial which moves on
the graduated dial.
 The voltmeter, ammeter, and power factor meter are
examples of indicating instruments.

9 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Classification of Deflection Type
Instruments
2. Integrating Instrument –
 The instrument which measures the total energy supplied at a
particular interval of time is known as the integrating
instrument.
 The total energy measured by the instrument is the product of
the time and the measures electrical quantities.
 The energy meter, watt-hour meter and the energy meter are the
examples of integrating instrument.

Fig. Energy meter

10 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments
Classification of Deflection Type
Instruments
3. Recording Instrument –
 These instruments record continuously the variation of any
electrical quantity with respect to time.
 In principle, these are indicating instruments but so arranged
that a permanent continuous record of the indication is made on
a chart or dial.
 The recording is generally made by a pen on a graph paper which
is rotated on a dice or drum at a uniform speed.
 The amount of the quantity at any time may
be read from the traced chart. Any variation
in the quantity with time is recorded by these
instruments.
 Any electrical quantity like current, voltage,
power etc., may be arranged to be recorded
by a suitable recording mechanism.
11 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments
Classifications
 Based on the Kind of Current that can be Measurand:
1. Direct current (dc) instruments
2. Alternating current (ac) instruments
3. Both direct current and alternating current instruments (dc/ac
instruments).
 Based on the method used
1. Direct measuring instruments: These instruments convert
the energy of the measured quantity directly into energy that
actuates the instrument, and the value of the unknown
quantity is measured, displayed, or recorded directly.
Examples- Ammeter, Voltmeter, Watt meter etc.
2. Comparison instruments: These instruments measure the
unknown quantity by comparison with a standard. They are
used when a higher accuracy of measurements is desired.
Examples- dc and ac bridges and potentiometers.
12 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments
Types of forces/torques acting in
measuring instruments:
The defection of any instrument is determined by the combined
effect of the deflecting force, control force and damping force.

1. Deflecting force-
 When there is no input signal to the instrument, the pointer will
be at its zero position.
 To deflect the pointer from its zero position, a force is
necessary which is known as deflecting force.
 The value of the deflecting force must
depend on the electrical signal to be
measured.
 A system which produces the deflecting
force is known as a deflecting system
which converts an electrical signal to a
mechanical force.
13 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments
Types of forces/torques acting in
measuring instruments:
2. Controlling force:
 This force must act in the opposite sense to the deflecting force,
and the movement will take up an equilibrium or definite
position when the deflecting and controlling forces are equal
in magnitude.
is the deflection of pointer

 The deflecting torque produced Td proportional to ‘I’. When

Therefore

The Spiral springs or gravity usually provides the controlling

torque.
 When the external signal to be measured by the instrument is
removed, the pointer should return back to the zero position.
This is possibly due to the controlling force.
14 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments
Types of forces/torques acting in
measuring instruments:
3. Damping force:
 A damping force is required to act in a direction opposite to the
movement of the moving system.
 This brings the moving system to rest at the deflected
position reasonably quickly without any oscillation or very
small oscillation.
 Due to inertia produced by this system, the pointer oscillates
about it final steady position before coming to rest.
 It should be pointed out that any damping force shall not
influence the steady state deflection produced by a given
deflecting force or torque.
 This force is produced by different systems.
(a) Air friction damping
(b) Fluid friction damping
(c) Eddy current damping
15 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments
Potentiometer
 A potentiometer is a null-type measuring instrument used
to measure, compare, and calibrate voltages by balancing an
unknown voltage against a known reference voltage.
 A potentiometer works on the principle that the potential
drop across any length of a uniform conductor carrying a
constant current is directly proportional to its length.

 Applications
• Measurement of unknown EMF
• Comparison of EMFs
• Calibration of voltmeters and ammeters
• Measurement of internal resistance of cells
• Position and displacement sensing (mechanical potentiometers)
16 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments
Potentiometer
Working principle:
 The potentiometer consists of L which is a long resistive wire and
a battery of known EMF V whose voltage is known. One end of
the primary circuit is connected to the cell whose EMF E is to be
measured and the other end is connected to galvanometer G.

 The working principle depends

on the potential across any
portion of the wire which is
directly proportional to the
length of the wire that has a
uniform cross-sectional area and
current flow is constant.

17 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Potentiometer
Working principle:
 V=IR, R= ῥL/A,
hence V= IῥL/A, Lῥ/A=K
(constant), V= KL

• let the first cell of E1 given a

null point at a length= L1 and
the second cell of E2 show a
null point at length= L2

• Now for a cell with Lower E1/E2= L1/L2

EMF E, in the potentiometer
wire, at length x, the
potentiometer has become E,
E= Lῥx/A=Kx

18 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Types of Potentiometers
1. DC Potentiometer
• Measures DC voltages.
• Used for calibration of DC instruments. Example: Slide-wire
potentiometer.
2. AC Potentiometer
• Measures AC voltages.
• Requires phase-sensitive detection.
3. Mechanical (Variable Resistor) Potentiometer
• Used as a voltage divider.
• Common in volume controls.
• Types: Rotary and Linear (slider).
 Electronic / Digital Potentiometer
• Uses semiconductor devices.
• Controlled digitally, Used in modern electronic systems.
19 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments
Analog voltmeter, ammeter using
PMMC and MI
Ammeters are connected in series in the circuit whose current
is to be measured. The power loss in an ammeter is I2Ra.
 Therefore, ammeters should have a low electrical resistance so
that they cause a small voltage drop and consequently absorb
small power.
Ammeter should
be connected in
series so that all
the current
flowing in the
circuit element
must flow
through the
When ammeter is connected in
ammeter in order
parallel it will short that element. So,
for it to measure
the current through the circuit will
the current.
increase which will definitely burn
the meter.
20 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments
Analog voltmeter, ammeter using
PMMC and MI
Voltmeters are connected in parallel with the circuit whose
voltage is to be measured. The power loss in voltmeters is V2/Rv.
 The voltmeters should have a high electrical resistance, in order
that the current drawn by them is small and consequently the
power consumed is small.
 This is done so as our aim is to not to alter the value of current
flowing though the circuit rather to measure voltage drop across
the element. An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance.

When connected in series,

we will be reducing the
current to nearly zero. On
other words it will lead to
an open circuit.

21 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Types of instruments used as an
ammeters and voltmeters
The main types of instruments used as an ammeters
and voltmeters are

(i) Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC)

(ii) Moving iron
(iii) Electro-dynamometer
(iv) Hot wire
(v) Thermocouple
(vi) Induction
(vii) Electrostatic

22 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Permanent magnet moving coil
(PMMC)
 A PMMC instrument is a deflection-type instrument used for DC measurement
only, operating on the principle that a current-carrying conductor placed in a
magnetic field experiences a force.
 Construction of PMMC Instruments
1. Permanent Magnet- Produces a
strong, uniform magnetic field.
2. Moving Coil- Rectangular coil wound
on an aluminum former. It is Placed
between the pole pieces of the magnet.
3. Soft Iron Core- Makes the magnetic
field radial and uniform.
4. Control Springs- Provide controlling
torque which act as current leads to
the coil.
5. Pointer and Scale-Pointer attached to
the coil moves over a calibrated scale.
6. Damping Arrangement- Eddy current
damping due to aluminum former.

23 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Working of PMMC instrument
When a DC current flows through the moving coil placed in a
magnetic field, it experiences a force causing the coil to rotate.
 When the PMMC instrument is connected in the circuit,
1. DC current flows through the moving coil.
2. The coil experiences force in the magnetic field produced by the
permanent magnet.
3. Deflecting torque rotates the coil.
4. Control springs oppose motion.
5. Pointer settles at a position proportional to current.

 It may be noted here that if current direction is reversed the torque

will also be reversed since the direction of the field of permanent
magnet is same.
 Hence, these instruments work only when current in the circuit is passed
in a definite direction i.e. for d.c only.
 So it is called permanent magnet moving coil instruments because a coil
moves in the field of a permanent magnet.

24 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Torque Equation
 Deflecting Torque,
𝑇𝑑=𝐵 𝑁 𝐼 𝐴

Where, 𝐵 = magnetic flux density,

𝑁= number of turns,
𝐼= current through the coil,
𝐴= area of the coil. Since 𝐵,𝑁,𝐴 are constants.

𝑇𝑑∝𝐼
 Control Torque:
𝑇𝑐=𝑘𝜃,
At equilibrium: 𝑇𝑑=𝑇𝑐 ⇒ 𝜃∝𝐼
 Hence, deflection is directly proportional to current →
uniform scale.

25 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Advantages and Disadvantages of PMMC
Advantages Disadvantages
High accuracy Measures only DC
Uniform scale Expensive
High sensitivity Affected by temperature
Low power consumption Delicate
Good damping Magnet aging effect
Errors in PMMC Instruments
Applications
• Temperature effect: Change of resistance
• DC ammeters
of the moving coil with temperature.
• DC voltmeters
• Spring material and age: Weakening of
• Galvanometers
springs due to ageing and temperature
• Laboratory and
effects.
calibration
• Ageing of Magnet: Weakening of
instruments
permanent magnets due to ageing at
temperature effects.
26 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments
Extension of range of PMMC instrument
Case-I: Shunt:
• A low shunt resistance connected in parallel with the ammeter to
extent the range of current.
• Large current can be measured using a low-current-rated ammeter by
using a shunt.

• Shunt resistance is made of manganin, which has the least

thermo-electric emf.
• The change in the resistance is due to change in temperature is
27 negligible
Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments
Extension of range of PMMC instrument
 Case (II): Multiplier:
• A large resistance is connected in series with voltmeter.
• A large voltage can be measured using a voltmeter of small rating with a multiplier.

28 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Moving Iron Instruments (MI)
 A MI instrument is a deflection-type measuring instrument
in which the movement of a soft iron piece is caused by the
magnetic field produced by a current-carrying coil.

 Moving Iron instruments work on the principle that:

A soft iron piece placed in a magnetic field experiences a force
and moves to a position where the magnetic field strength is
maximum.

 The deflecting torque depends on the square of the current.

 Hence, MI instruments work for both AC and DC.
 Moving iron instruments are of two types
(i) Attraction type.
(ii) Repulsion type.
29 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments
Torque Equation
Energy Stored in the Coil
 The inductance of the coil depends on the position of the iron
vane. Where, W= magnetic energy stored
L = inductance of the coil
I= current through the coil
 When the iron vane moves by a small angle dθ, the
inductance changes by dL.

• Direction of current does not affect deflection.

• Instrument works for both AC and DC.
• Scale is non-uniform
30 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic
Instruments
Attraction Type
Construction
1. Fixed coil – Produces magnetic
field.
2. Soft iron vane – Moves due to
attraction.
3. Pointer and spindle – Indicate
deflection.
4. Control spring – Provides
controlling torque.
5. Damping system – Air friction
damping

Working
1. Current flows through the fixed
coil. 5. Deflecting torque is produced.
2. Magnetic field is produced. 6. Pointer moves over the scale.
3. Soft iron vane gets magnetized. 7. Control spring balances the
4. The vane is attracted into the coil. torque.
31 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments
Repulsion Type
 Repulsion Type MI - Two soft iron pieces are magnetized by
the magnetic field of a current-carrying fixed coil and repel
each other, producing pointer deflection.
 In the repulsion type, there are two vanes inside the coil one
fixed and other movable.
 When current flows through the fixed coil, both iron pieces
acquire the same polarity.
 The repulsive force between them produces a deflecting torque.

 The two different designs of repulsion type instruments are:

i) Radial vane type and
ii) Co-axial vane type

32 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic

Instruments
Radial vane type
 The two vanes are radial strips of iron.
 The fixed vane is attached to the coil.
 The movable vane is attached to the
spindle and suspended in the
induction field of the coil. The needle of
the instrument is attached to this
vane.
 Even though the current through the
coil is alternating, there is always
repulsion between the like poles of the
fixed and the movable vane.

• The deflection of the pointer is always in the same direction.

• The deflection is effectively proportional to the actual current.
• The calibration is accurate only for the frequency for which it is design,
as the impedance varies with different frequencies.

33 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic

Instruments
Concentric vane type
 The fixed and moving vanes are
sections of coaxial cylinders as
concentric vanes.
 One is attached to the coil frame
rigidly while the other can rotate
coaxially inside the stationary vane.
 Both the vanes are magnetized to the
same polarity due to the current in
the coil.
 Thus the movable vane rotates under
the repulsive force.
 The movable vane is attached to the
pivoted shaft, the repulsion results

in
Thea pointer
rotationdeflection
of the shaft.
is proportional to the square of the current in the
coil.
 The deflection of the pointer is always in the same direction.
34 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic
Instruments
Advantages and Disadvantages of MI
Advantages Disadvantages
Works on AC & DC Non-uniform scale
Rugged and simple Less accurate
Economical High power consumption
High overload capacity Hysteresis error
No demagnetization Frequency error

Errors in MI Instruments
1. Hysteresis error: Caused by the magnetic hysteresis of the soft iron parts. For the
same current, deflection differs depending on whether current is increasing or
decreasing.
2. Temperature error : Rise in temperature increases coil resistance.
3. Stray magnetic Field Error: External magnetic fields influence the iron
[Link] incorrect deflection.
4. Frequency Error : The change in frequency affects the reactance of the working coil
and also affects the magnitude of the eddy currents.
5. Eddy Current Error : The eddy current affects the instrument current causing the
change
35 in the deflection torque.
Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments
Comparison between Attraction and
Repulsion Types
Parameter Attraction Type MI Repulsion Type MI

Number of iron Two soft iron pieces (one fixed,

One soft iron piece
pieces one moving)
Soft iron piece is attracted Like poles induced in iron pieces
Operating principle
into the magnetic field repel each other
Type of force Attraction force Repulsion force
Sensitivity Lower Higher
Highly non-uniform (crowded More uniform than attraction
Scale uniformity
at lower end) type
Accuracy Lower Better than attraction type
Deflection control By spring or gravity By spring
Mechanical stability Less stable More stable

Common designs Plain attraction type Radial and concentric vane types

Cost Cheaper Costlier than attraction type

Usage preference Rarely used now Widely used in practice
36 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic
Instruments
Comparison between PMMC and MI
Parameter PMMC Instrument Moving Iron (MI) Instrument
Operating Force on a current-carrying conductor Attraction or repulsion of soft iron in a
principle in a magnetic field magnetic field
Current type DC only AC and DC
Deflecting torque Td∝I Td∝I2
Scale Uniform (linear) Non-uniform (crowded at lower end)
Accuracy Very high Moderate
Sensitivity Very high Lower than PMMC
Power consumed Very low Higher
Damping Eddy current damping Air friction damping
Hysteresis effect Absent Present
Frequency error Not applicable Present (AC operation)
Effect of stray
Negligible More affected
fields
Overload capacity Low High
Mechanical
Delicate Rugged
robustness
Cost
37 High 2 - Electrical and Electronic
Module: Low
Applications DC instrumentsInstruments AC instruments
Single phase wattmeter
 A single-phase wattmeter is normally of the
Electrodynamometer type.
 A single-phase wattmeter is an instrument used to measure
true electrical power consumed in a single-phase AC circuit.

Why Electrodynamometer type is used?

Instrument Suitable for

Reason
Type Wattmeter?
Electrodynamom Measures true power (VIcosφ), works
✅ Yes
eter on AC & DC
Works only on DC, cannot measure
PMMC ❌ No
AC power
Measures magnitude only, not phase
MI (Moving Iron) ❌ No
relationship

38 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Electrodynamometer type
 This instrument can be used for the measurement of
voltage, current and power.

• The electrodynamometer type instrument works on the

principle of interaction between the magnetic fields
produced by two current-carrying coils.
• When two coils carrying currents are placed close to each
other, a mechanical force is produced due to the
interaction of their magnetic fields. This force produces a
deflecting torque.

 The difference between the PMMC and dynamometer type

instrument is that the permanent magnet is replaced by
an electromagnet.

39 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Construction of Single-Phase
Wattmeter
• A fixed coil is divided into two
equal halves.
• The moving coil is placed
between the two halves of the
fixed coil.
• Both the fixed and moving coils
are air cored.
• So that the hysteresis effect will
be zero.
• The pointer is attached with the
spindle.
(a) Current Coil (CC)/ Fixed Coil (b) Potential Coil (PC)/Moving Coil
• Made of few turns of thick wire. • Made of many turns of fine wire.
• Connected in series with the • Connected across the supply.
load. • Has high series resistance to
• Carries load current. limit current.
• Produces a magnetic field • Produces a magnetic field
proportional to the load proportional to the supply
current.
40 voltage.
Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments
Principle of operation
• When current flows through both coils,
each coil produces its own magnetic field.
• These magnetic fields interact with each
other.
• Due to this interaction, a deflecting
torque (Td) is produced on the moving
coil.
• The moving coil rotates and the pointer
deflects over the scale. The deflection
continues until:
Deflecting torque= Controlling torque
The deflecting torque is given by: Td∝I1×I2

Wattmeter Application
•Fixed coil → carries load current (I)
•Moving coil → carries current proportional to voltage (V)
•Average torque:

41 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Torque Equation
Let i1, i2 = Instantaneous value of current
in fixed and moving coil
L1, L2 = Self inductance of fixed and
moving coil
M = Mutual inductance between fixed and
moving coils
The electrodynamometer instrument can be
represented by an equivalent circuit as shown in
Fig.

42 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Torque Equation

Energy input = Energy stored + Mechanical energy

The self inductance L1
Mechanical energy = Energy input - Energy stored and L2 are constant,
hence dL1 and dL2 are
zero.

Mechanical energy = i1 i2 dM
If Ti is the deflecting torque and dθ is the change in the deflection,
Then Mechanical energy = Mechanical workdone= Ti dθ
i1 i2 d M = Ti dθ

43 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

 Single phase dynamometer
wattmeter:
 The current coil carries the current of the circuit, pressure coil carries
current proportional to the voltage in the circuit.
 This is achieved by connecting a series resistance in voltage circuit.

IC = current through current coil

IPG= current through pressure coil
R = series resistance.
V= R.M.S. value of supply voltage
I= R.M.S. value of current.

44 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Single phase dynamometer
wattmeter:

45 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Analog energy meter
 An analog energy meter is an induction-type instrument used to
measure electrical energy consumed in a single-phase AC circuit.
 Energy is measured in kilowatt-hour (kWh)

• An induction type energy meter works on the

principle of electromagnetic induction and
interaction of alternating magnetic fluxes.

• When two alternating magnetic fluxes

displaced in time act on a conducting disc,
eddy currents are induced in the disc. The
interaction between the fluxes and eddy
currents produces a torque which causes
the disc to rotate.

46 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic

Instruments
Construction
(a) Driving System-It has two electromagnets:
1. Series Magnet (Current Coil)-Connected in
series with the load. Carries load current.
Produces magnetic flux proportional to
current.
2. Shunt Magnet (Voltage Coil)- Connected
across the supply. Highly inductive and
produces flux proportional to voltage. Flux
lags voltage by nearly 90°

(b) Moving System-

• Aluminium disc mounted on a spindle.
• Placed between the series and the shunt
magnet.
• Eddy currents induced in the disc cause
rotation
(c) Braking System- Permanent magnet (d) Registering (Counting) Mechanism
• Provides braking torque. • Gear train connected to spindle.
• Controls speed of rotation. • Records number of revolutions.
• Braking torque ∝ speed of disc • Displays energy consumed in kWh
47 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic
Instruments
Working
1. When supply is applied: Current coil
produces flux proportional to load current
(I). Voltage coil produces flux proportional
to voltage (V)
2. These two alternating fluxes, which are
displaced in time by 90° and induce eddy
currents in the aluminium disc.
3. Interaction between the Fluxes and eddy
currents produces a driving torque (Td),
Td∝VIcosϕ.
4. The disc starts rotating. The permanent
magnet produces a braking torque (Tb)
proportional to speed.
5. At steady speed: Td=Tb.
6. Speed of disc ∝ power, and Expression for Energy
total revolutions ∝ energy consumed. Measurement

Energy=Power×Time
E=VIcosϕ×t
48 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic
Instruments
Instrument transformers
• In power systems, currents and voltages handled
are very large. Direct measurements are not possible
with the existing equipment’s.

• Hence it is required to step down currents and

voltages with the help of instrument transformers so
that they can be measured with instruments of
moderate sizes.

• Transformers used in conjunction with measuring

instruments for measurement purposes are called
“Instrument Transformers”.

49 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Types of Instrument Transformers
1. Current Transformer (CT)
2. Potential (Voltage) Transformer (PT or VT)

• Construction of Current Transformer

1. Primary winding: Few turns (often one turn)
Connected in series with the line.
2. Secondary winding: Many turns of fine wire,
Connected to ammeter or relay.
3. Core: Laminated silicon steel core. Secondary
is always kept closed (never open-circuited).
• Working of Current Transformer
1. When load current flows through the primary,
2. Magnetic flux is produced in the core.
3. This flux induces current in the secondary.
4. Secondary current is proportional to primary
current

50 Instruments measure
Module: scaled-down
2 - Electrical current
and Electronic
Instruments
Types of Instrument Transformers
1. Current Transformer (CT)
2. Potential (Voltage) Transformer (PT or VT)

• Construction of Potential Transformer

1. Primary winding: Many turns, Connected
across high-voltage line.
2. Secondary winding: Few turns, Connected
to voltmeter or relay.
3. Core: Laminated steel core, Designed for high
insulation.
• Working of Current Transformer
1. High voltage applied to primary.
2. Alternating flux induces voltage in secondary
3. Secondary voltage is proportional to primary
voltage.

51 Provides Module:
safe, low voltage and
2 - Electrical (usually 110 V)
Electronic
Instruments
Comparison: CT vs PT
Current Potential
Feature
Transformer Transformer
Connection Series Parallel
Primary turns Few (1 turn) Many
Secondary turns Many Few
Secondary
Never open Can be open
condition
Used with Ammeter, relay Voltmeter, relay

• Advantages of Instrument Transformers • Applications

1. Safe measurement of high voltage and 1. Power measurement
current 2. Energy meters
2. Standardized instrument ratings 3. Protective relays
3. Reduced power loss 4. High-voltage
4. Electrical isolation substations
52 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic
Instruments
Ohm meter
 An ohmmeter is an electrical measuring instrument used to measure
resistance in ohms (Ω). It works by applying an internal source
(battery) to the unknown resistance and measuring the resulting
current or voltage.
There are two types of schemes are
used to design an ohmmeter
(a) Series Type Ohmmeter:
• Unknown resistance is
connected in series with the
meter.
• Used for medium and high
resistance measurements.

(b) Shunt Type Ohmmeter

• Unknown resistance is
connected in parallel with the
meter.
• Used for low resistance
53 measurements. Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments
Ohm meter
Shunt
Feature Series Ohmmeter
Ohmmeter
Best suited for Medium & high R Low R
Circuit
Simple More complex
complexity
Sensitivity Low for small RHigh for small R
Crowded at
Scale nature Crowded at high R
high R
Accuracy
Battery voltage Battery voltage
dependence

54 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Power factor meter
 A power factor meter is an electrical instrument used to
directly measure the power factor (cos φ) of an AC circuit,
where φ is the phase angle between voltage and current.
• Principle of Operation
A power factor meter works on the principle that deflection is
proportional to the phase difference between:
 Voltage of the circuit
 Current of the circuit
• Types of Power Factor Meters
1. Electrodynamometer type (single-phase)
2. Moving-iron type (single-phase)
3. Induction type (three-phase)
4. Digital power factor meter

Electrodynamometer PF meters are preferred for accuracy,

while induction and digital types are commonly used in industrial
and modern power systems.
55 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic
Instruments
Electrodynamometer Type Power
Factor Meter (Single-Phase)
 This type of meter measures power factor by using two coils—
one resistive and one inductive—to determine the phase
difference between voltage and current.
• Construction
1. One fixed coil (current coil), Connected in series with the load.
2. Two moving coils (pressure coils), Mounted on the same spindle and
Connected across supply through: High resistance (non-inductive)
and High inductance
3. Control springs: Not required.
4. Pointer & scale: Scale marked directly in cos φ
• Working Principle
1. Fixed coil carries load current.
2. Moving coils carry currents proportional to
voltage.
3. One pressure coil current is in phase with
voltage.
4. Other pressure coil current lags by 90°.
5. Interaction produces deflecting torque.
56 6. Pointer
Module: settles
2 - Electrical at a position proportional to cos
and Electronic
Instruments
 Q meter
 A Q-meter is a laboratory instrument used to
measure the quality factor (Q) of inductors and
resonant circuits at radio frequencies.

At resonance:

Working Principle of Q-Meter

The Q-meter works on the principle of series resonance.
At resonance, the voltage across the capacitor (or inductor) is Q
times the applied voltage.

57 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

 Working of Q-Meter
1. The inductor under test is connected in series with the variable
capacitor.
2. Frequency is varied until series resonance occurs.
3. At resonance:
1. Circuit impedance is minimum
2. Current is maximum
4. Voltage across the capacitor is measured.
5. Q-factor is calculated as:

Advantages Disadvantages
Not suitable for low-frequency
Direct measurement of Q-factor
measurements
Errors due to stray capacitance and
High accuracy at radio frequencies (RF)
resistance
Can measure inductance, capacitance,
Accuracy affected by coil losses
and resonant frequency
Useful for testing RF coils and tuned Not suitable for high-power
58 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments
circuits components
Example

59 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Example
The pointer of a moving coil instrument gives full scale deflection of 20mA. The potential
difference across the meter when carrying 20mA is [Link] instrument to be used is
200A for full scale deflection. Find the shunt resistance required to achieve this, if the
instrument to be used as a voltmeter for full scale reading with 1000V. Find the series
resistance to be connected it?

60 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Example
A 150 v moving iron voltmeter is intended for 50HZ, has a resistance of 3kΩ. Find the
series resistance required to extent the range of instrument to 300v. If the 300V
instrument is used to measure a d.c. voltage of 200V. Find the voltage across the meter?

61 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments

Example
What is the value of series resistance to be used to extent ‘0’to 200V range of
20,000Ω/volt voltmeter to 0 to 2000 volt?

62 Module: 2 - Electrical and Electronic Instruments